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Door Dash’s Current Ethical Dilemma homework help

Door Dash’s Current Ethical Dilemma homework help

You will locate current ethical dilemma events. In a 3-4 page paper, you will identify an issue that reveals an ethical dilemma. You must describe the dilemma, state the facts leading up to the dilemma, provide a brief description of all of the stakeholders involved in the dilemma and/or who have an interest in the outcome of the dilemma, proffer suggestions for best dealing with and/or solving the dilemma, and explain why the proffered suggestion(s) is ideal given the circumstances. Papers will be graded for clarity, comprehensiveness, and grammar. Papers must be typewritten in 12-point font size (Times New Roman), double spaced, and have one-inch margins all around. Please use course readings along with additional sources (with a minimum of 3 references). In addition to providing a cover and references page.

For my topic, I want to talk about Door Dash ethical Dilemma where the tips were not going to the workers. Must you three sources. The first source is mandatory, the other two are optional. Use 3-5 quotes to support. Please use the Book to support your claim that is also mandatory. I have attached the book to the question. Thank you!

https://www.theverge.com/2019/7/24/20708212/doordash-delivery-tip-theft-policy-change-tony-xu-tweets

https://www.washingtonpost.com/business/2019/07/24/doordash-change-its-controversial-tipping-policy-after-outcry/?noredirect=on&utm_term=.c0195d8ee3a8

The Ethics Primer for Public Administrators in Government and Nonprof it Organizations

Second Edition

James Svara Research Professor, School of Public

Affairs Arizona State University Phoenix, Arizona

Visiting Professor, School of Government University of North Carolina Chapel Hill, North Carolina

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Malloy Cover Printing: Edwards Brothers Malloy Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Svara, James H.

The ethics primer for public administrators in government and nonprofit organizations / James H. Svara, PhD, research professor, School of Public Affairs, Arizona State University. — Second edition.

pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4496-1901-5 (pbk.) 1. Health services administrators—Moral and ethical aspects. I. Title. R724.S83 2015 174.2—dc23 2013034748

6048 Printed in the United States of America 18 17 16 15 14 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

This book is dedicated to my students at the University of North Carolina at Greensboro, North Carolina State University, and Arizona State University, with whom

I learned a lot about ethics.

Contents

Preface

Acknowledgments

CHAPTER 1 Introduction—and a Pop Quiz Pop Quiz: Do You Have a Code of Ethics? Understanding the Setting for Administrative Ethics The Setting Continued: Differences Between Government and

Nonprofit Organizations Overview

CHAPTER 2 Administrative Ethics: Ideas, Sources, and Development Definition and the Sources of Ethical Ideas Your Code Compared to Others Ethical Development Basic Components of Administrative Ethics Other Definitional Issues: Distinctions Between Ethics, Morality, and

Law

CHAPTER 3 Refining the Sense of Duty: Responsibilities of Public Administrators and the Issue of Agency

The Responsibilities of Democratic Public Administrators Responsibilities to Elected Officials and to the Organization: The

Question of Moral Agency Do Role and Structure Allow Administrators to Be Responsible for

Their Actions? Are Public Administrators Accountable Agents? Complementarity as Conceptual Foundation for Administrative

Responsibilities Building a Model of Administrative Ethics with Duty at the Core

CHAPTER 4 Reinforcing and Enlarging Duty: The Philosophical Bases of Ethical Behavior and the Ethics Triangle

Virtue and Intuition Advantages of the Virtuous Approach Disadvantages of the Virtuous Approach Problems with Over- and Underutilization

Deontology and the Principle-Based Approach Issues in the Principle-Based Approach Advantages of the Principle-Based Approach

Disadvantages of the Principle-Based Approach Problems of Over- and Underutilization

Consequences-Based Ethics: The Utilitarian Approach Advantages of the Utilitarian Approach Disadvantages of the Utilitarian Approach Problems of Over- and Underutilization

Using the Approaches Together Logic of Combining Approaches Examples from Ethics Guidelines

The Ethics Triangle Promoting Use of the Ethics Triangle

CHAPTER 5 Codifying Duty and Ethical Perspectives: Professional Codes of Ethics

Breadth and Purpose of Codes Enforcement of Codes Restating the Purpose of Codes of Ethics Incorporating Codes into Your Own Professional Standards

CHAPTER 6 Undermining Duty: Challenges to the Ethical Behavior of Public Administrators

Explanations Based on Bad People/Bad Systems Failings Due to Shortcomings by Normally Good and Decent

Officials Unethical Choices Shaped by Circumstances

CHAPTER 7 Deciding How to Meet Obligations and Act Responsibly: Ethical Analysis and Problem Solving

Advantages of Analysis Stages and Steps in Problem Solving Model Applying the Problem Solving Model Problem Solving and Action

CHAPTER 8 Acting on Duty in the Face of Uncertainty and Risk: Responsible Whistleblowing

Conditions for Responsible Whistleblowing Retaliatory Techniques Steps to Protect Whistleblowers Who Are Whistleblowers?

CHAPTER 9 Elevating Ethical Behavior in the Organization Strengthening Organization and Management Culture Clear Expectations, Effective Training and Advice, and Mechanisms

for Control Positive Management Practices Adequate Channels for Complaints and Values That Encourage

Dissent Equity and Involvement in Dealings with the Public

CHAPTER 10 Mandating Duty: External Measures to Promote Ethics Open Meetings Laws and Freedom of Information Requirements Inspectors General and Auditors State Ethics Laws

Those Covered by Provisions Conflict of Interest

Disclosure Prohibitions and Controls Postemployment Restrictions Whistleblower Protection Administration and Enforcement

Assessment of Ethics Laws

CHAPTER 11 Conclusion: The Duties of Public Administrators

APPENDIX 1 Standards of Ethical Conduct for Employees of the Executive Branch

APPENDIX 2 Code of Ethics for Government Service

APPENDIX 3 American Society for Public Administration’s Code of Ethics with Practices

APPENDIX 4 International City/County Management Association Code of Ethics with Guidelines

APPENDIX 5 The Code of Ethics for Nonprofit and Philanthropic Organizations

APPENDIX 6 American Institute of Certified Planners Code of Ethics and Professional Conduct

APPENDIX 7 Organizational Ethical Climate Survey

REFERENCES

INDEX

Preface

Ethics is an essential aspect of public service, but it is often left out of discussions on the development of the field and its major functions. Ethics is sometimes treated as a specialized topic studied for its own sake. For ethics to guide the attitudes and behavior of public administrators, it must be integrated into the way administrators think about their practice and incorporated into their everyday behavior.

I come to the exploration of ethics from a general scholarly interest in political- administrative relations. In my research and teaching, I seek to understand how public administration contributes to the political process, how politicians and administrators interact with each other, and how administrators relate to citizens. Examining these topics naturally brings up the issue of appropriate limits and goals, particularly regarding the behavior of public administrators. What is, and should be, the role of professional public administrators in governance? What are the characteristics of political-administrative relations? What do we expect administrators to do—and not to do? How do administrators relate to citizens? How should they balance their accountability to elected superiors and their professional standards with their responsibility to the public? The normative side of each of these questions involves “big” ethical issues, and these are the focus of this text.

John Gaus (1950) argued many years ago that a theory of public administration is also a theory of politics. I agree and hope to make the case for a further broadening of our understanding of the field. A theory of public administration in the political process is also a theory of ethics.

I believe that the same logic also applies to understanding the ethics of administrators in nonprofit organizations because of the basic similarity in the nature of administrative responsibilities in the governmental and nonprofit sectors. The city manager who works with the city council and serves the public, and the nonprofit executive director who works with a board of directors and serves clients, share many important characteristics in their work, in the ethical challenges that they face, and in their duty to serve. The text is also concerned with administrators who have little direct interaction with the public, whether in national or state government or in nonprofit organizations.

This text is a primer that introduces the reader to the fundamentals of administrative responsibility and ethics. It links these ideas to the nature of the administrative process and the work of professional administrators. It seeks to help the reader understand why ethics is important to people who choose to be administrators in governmental and nonprofit organizations and how to relate their own personal values with the norms of the public sector. Furthermore, the text offers assistance in working through the complexity and controversy surrounding ethical problems in public administration. It avoids prescription—thou shalt, thou shalt not—as much as possible and seeks instead

to enable the reader to form his or her own judgments about ethical choices. It is an introduction to fundamental issues that equips readers to make informed choices about their own behavior. It also provides a foundation for exploring the topic in more depth in other courses or training opportunities.

I approach this text with 16 years of teaching ethics and professional practice—a core course in the master of public administration (MPA) degree—and more years teaching related topics. I hope to create in these words-on-pages some of the dynamic exchange that occurs in the classroom as students grapple with the important issues in administrative ethics. From this experience, I know quite well that this text does not “teach” ethics, in the sense of trying to fill in a blank slate. The reader already has a basic understanding of what it means to be an ethical person. Like my students, the reader comes to this text with a reservoir of ethical and moral values upon which he or she can draw.

In addition to my teaching, I bring perspectives from the experience of being an administrator, a program director, and department head. Some important generic issues in supervision, interpersonal relations, resource use, reporting, and planning are encountered even in the rather disorganized sphere of academic administration. I also benefited greatly from a year on leave working in Washington, DC, from 1976–1977 at the Department of Housing and Urban Development as a National Association of School of Public Affairs and Administration (NASPAA) Fellow. Furthermore, a lot of my research and training involves interacting with politicians and administrators, both in the United States and other countries. I think that I have come to appreciate the kinds of challenges that administrators face and how often there is an important ethical dimension to these challenges.

My research reflects a blending of my early focus on urban politics and political leadership and my deepening interest in administrative leadership and values. I explore professional administration in a political context. Although much of my writing has focused on local government, my teaching addresses issues at all levels of government and in nonprofits. I conduct empirical research on topics that have a normative dimension and examine the normative implications of my quantitative research. I have merged empirical research findings with analysis of the development of public administration to suggest a new (but I believe historically grounded) way to conceptualize political-administrative relations. This approach stresses the complementarity of politics and administration rather than a dichotomy or strict separation as the conceptual foundation of the field. This model informs my approach to administrative ethics.

The Ethics Primer for Public Administrators in Government and Nonprofit Organizations, Second Edition presents a simple theme that, of course, gets complicated in the telling. People enter the field of public administration, just as the reader enters this text, with an interest in public service and a set of values shaped in part by that interest. These values reflect most of the essential elements of ethical thinking, but they are not developed in a very sophisticated way. Like most adults, people who have not formally studied administrative ethics tend to have values that are grounded in respect for conventional norms. Also, they tend to have fairly substantial respect for people in positions of “authority.” This condition creates tension between the sense of duty to serve and act responsibly, on the one hand, and the deference to the superiors and

established rules, on the other. Most people who have not expanded their knowledge or thought systematically about ethics and the nature of public service are dependent on external sources of direction.

I hope this text will help the reader broaden and deepen his or her understanding of the nature of the public service duty and major approaches to thinking about ethics. I hope the reader will internalize this knowledge so he or she is able to form independent judgments about ethical options based on universal values. The reader will not necessarily reject the external influences he or she receives, but will be better able to weigh his or her own reasoned sense of what is right against what others say is right. Finally, I hope the reader will be able to use this knowledge to take actions that are ethically sound based on a careful consideration of all the relevant options. Because the reader is already or is preparing to become an administrator who is responsible for directing other persons and shaping his or her organization, I hope this text will also help the reader see ways that he or she can raise ethical awareness in others.

Acknowledgments

I have been a member of the faculty in the School of Public Affairs at Arizona State University and want to thank my colleagues and students there for their support of my research on ethics. I also want to express my gratitude to a number of colleagues and students at North Carolina State University who helped, both directly and indirectly, with the original text. Debra Stewart helped me understand the importance of the development of ethical reasoning and how it changes over time. Jim Brunet offered comments, suggested sources, and made a test drive in a class he taught with an earlier version of the manuscript. Former doctoral students Dr. Jack Kem and Dr. Julie Raines wrote dissertations on ethics topics and added to my knowledge of the issues and the literature in administrative ethics, and current doctoral students Ljubinka Andonoska and Chin-Chang Tsai at Arizona State University conducted research that contributed to the new edition of the text.

I have had unique opportunity to work on the American Society for Public Administration (ASPA) Code of Ethics review process for the past two years. I am grateful to the 31 members of the working group who diligently examined the current Code of Ethics and thoughtfully proposed revisions that build on ASPA’s prior codes. It was a pleasure working with Jim Nordin, member of the ASPA National Council and retired federal government administrator, who co-chaired the working group with me. My understanding of professional ethics has been deepened by this experience.

My wife, Claudia, has been both patient and supportive over the extended period of this writing project. She is also a model of the ethical professional who exemplifies the duty to service at the highest level in her practice of medicine.

CHAPTER 1

Introduction—and a Pop Quiz

This text is a primer on administrative ethics, a term that refers to the ethics of persons who occupy career leadership and staff positions in government and nonprofit organizations. It brings to mind oxymorons, which are a form of satiric humor. “Military intelligence,” “jumbo shrimp,” and “airline food” are popular examples. To be honest, “administrative ethics” is probably pretty high on the list of commonly used oxymorons, but more to the point at the start of this text is the possibility that “ethics primer” itself connects two elements that are incompatible. To cover a complex topic such as ethics in the public service in a small, introductory book may seem to be an impossible task. Is it sufficient to briefly introduce and provide initial instruction—the dictionary meaning of a primer—for a subject as weighty as administrative ethics?

Based on my experience in teaching administrative ethics in a short-course format and as a component in a broader course for many years, there is an important precondition. What makes it possible to introduce this vast topic in a meaningful way is the fact that the reader already knows a great deal about ethics. I am assuming that the reader is an adult—young or otherwise—who is either interested in entering the public service or already works for a government or nonprofit organization. As we shall see, both relative maturity and self-selection for a public service position are important to one’s knowledge of and attitudes about administrative ethics.

Ethics is fundamental to one’s work in public service. This does not mean that it is simple or should be treated in a simplistic way. Still, if the topic cannot be discussed in a concise and straightforward way, ethics will be irrelevant to many of the people who work in public service. There are challenging standards and values that should be upheld, and these may be understood in broad terms as well as being the subject for specialized study. This text does not start the process of finding ethics, but it does provide an introduction to examining the nature of standards to which public administrators should adhere in order to meet their far-reaching responsibilities and challenges. Stated differently, this primer is not intended to give the reader a little bit of ethics that might be expanded by additional study. The intention is to provide a lot of ethics with an introduction to their origins and meaning that can be expanded with additional study as well as with reflection based on growing experience.

The tone of this text is personal, the style is a dialogue, and the purpose is exhortatory. The first and second person will be used extensively. “I” will direct comments to “you.” It is not possible to create the interaction of the classroom, but an effort will be made to encourage an exchange in which your response in the form of answers to questions that I pose will help to carry forward the dialogue. Finally, I believe that knowledge provides the basis for understanding and action, and the discussion in this text will provide extensive information. The underlying intent,

however, is not pedagogical; that is to say, to teach you the subject of administrative ethics. The purpose is to exhort you to engage yourself in ethics, to be more aware of the ethical dimension of public service, to be ethical in a more thoughtful and thoroughgoing way than before, and to do more to encourage others to be ethical.

Implicit in this intent is an approach to ethics that stresses both reducing unethical behavior and promoting the exercise of positive ethical responsibilities. Too often discussions of ethics in the public sector focus on unethical practices and ways to avoid or prevent bad behavior. These important topics are addressed, but more attention is given in this discussion to actions that administrators should take. Harm comes from inaction—the failure to do what is right to meet the highest standards—as well as from engaging in clearly unethical actions. It is important to recognize that doing what is right can raise complex issues and require courage.

Thus, the purpose of the text is to promote ethical behavior by public administrators on both individual and organizational levels. Specifically, the text enables the reader to do the following:

1. Appreciate that ethics is integral to the nature of democratic public administration 2. Understand the responsibilities of public administrators and the bases of

administrative ethics 3. Understand the tenets of the codes of ethics for various professional organizations

in the public sector and how they are applied 4. Be aware of and avoid the pressures and forces in public administration that can

contribute to unethical behavior 5. Develop the knowledge and skills needed to deal with ethical problems that arise

in public service 6. Strengthen the ethical climate in organizations

All of these serve to support ethical action. It is obvious that this text will cover a great deal of intellectual territory. The

discussion of topics is limited to the presentation of the material that is relevant to the line of argument that I am developing. Necessarily, this approach leaves the reader without the full exposition of a topic that it would receive if it were being considered on its own. Readers may pursue topics in more depth by following the guide to the literature provided in the endnotes. I seek to offer a serious but accessible conversation about ethics in the text, and a more scholarly examination of ethics in the endnotes.

POP QUIZ: DO YOU HAVE A CODE OF ETHICS? I do not expect that you will already have a well-formed, explicit code of ethics that you follow in your administrative work. Before examining the subject matter of this text in more depth, however, it is useful to establish a baseline. Here are some questions you can answer for yourself before proceeding further in the text:

What is or should be your code of ethics for work in government or nonprofit organizations?

What are the standards of right and wrong that should guide your work—the “do’s and don’ts” of public service?

If you will take the time now to record your thoughts, we will refer back to what you have written and compare your responses to other professional students in public administration.

UNDERSTANDING THE SETTING FOR ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS The discussion of “administrative” ethics applies both to those who work in government and in nonprofit organizations. Our appreciation of “new governance” includes the recognition that public needs are addressed by organizations in both the public and nonprofit sectors (Kettl 2002). Why is ethics a special concern in these particular organizations? It is important that administrators operate within legal and organizational controls. They serve the public, but not as private professionals who operate on a fee- for-service basis. Although there are important differences between the two sectors, the similarities are even greater and staff members in each can benefit from knowing more about the ethical challenges of the other.

To simplify the discussion throughout the text, four terms will be used generically to describe both the governmental and nonprofit setting: organizations, administrators, political superiors, and citizens or clients.

Organizations refer to governmental entities such as a city government as well as to nonprofit organizations. Depending on the context and the nature of the organization, the term will encompass the specific unit to which one is assigned; for instance, a section, the whole department, or the entire organization. For example, a municipal police officer will deal with some ethical issues in his or her area of assignment, such as the patrol division, with some in the department as a whole and with others as an employee of city government. For a staff member in a small nonprofit agency, the distinctions may not be useful or necessary, but larger nonprofits will have similar divisions.

Administrators refer to the civil service or career staff in government and the professional staff in nonprofit organizations. These positions range from the top executives (city managers in municipal government or executive directors in nonprofit organizations) to the staff members who handle a variety of specialized tasks. Some will have supervisory responsibilities and, therefore, are the administrative superiors of the staff they supervise. Others work without subordinates; for example, analysts and many frontline service providers including teachers, counselors, eligibility specialists, or police officers.

Political superiors, on the other hand, refer to persons who set the official goals and policies for the organization and oversee the administrators. In government organizations, this category includes both elected executives and members of legislative bodies as well as the politically appointed and politically oriented top layer of officials chosen by political executives such as the president, governor, or “strong” mayor. In local governments and special purpose agencies such as school districts, the political

superiors hold positions such as council member, board member, or commissioner. In nonprofit organizations, these persons sit on the board of directors.

Finally, the words citizens and clients refer to persons served by governmental and nonprofit organizations. In some respects, this is the least satisfactory of the generic terms. When stressing the recipients of a service, the word client is generally a suitable term for both government and nonprofit organizations, but it works less well for persons who are audited by an IRS agent or given a speeding ticket by a police officer. Those who do not choose their treatment may not feel that they are a “client” or are being “served,” but we will still include them in this category. Citizen implies not just the person who is impacted by organizational action, but also the person who provides the support and legitimacy for government (Denhardt and Denhardt 2011). Citizenship has come to be intermixed with the discussion of immigrant status, and to some it is a legal term reserved for those who are native-born or naturalized in the United States (Lucio 2009). We will consider citizens to include all residents who are members of the community that interact with government. How officials in governmental and nonprofit organizations interact with residents who are not documented is an important ethical issue.

The term citizen does not have the same meaning for the nonprofit organizations whose leaders are not chosen by or directly accountable to the public. Still, nonprofit organizations also have broad responsibilities to persons beyond those who receive services or provide contributions. If a nonprofit organization is perceived by the public to be wasteful and ineffective, it will probably not be able to survive just because it keeps a small group of clients happy. Furthermore, nonprofits operate within a legal framework that is sanctioned by government and the people. Thus, the basic idea of a service and fiduciary relationship between the organization and the people or some segment of it is common to the public and the nonprofit sectors.

These terms suggest the four responsibilities that are shared by government and nonprofit administrators. These responsibilities are the foundation for identifying the nature of the duty of public administrators: their responsibility to serve individuals, their responsibility to be accountable to the “people” and promote the public interest, their responsibility to their organization, and their responsibility to political superiors and to uphold the law and established policy. Some administrators in governmental and certain nonprofit organizations have the authority to exercise coercive power to support the discharge of their assigned responsibilities.1 Others in government and nonprofit organizations invite persons in need to accept services or assistance; they don’t coerce them to do anything. Frequently, it is citizens who initiate the contact to request or demand actions, remedies, or attention. In any of these circumstances, public administrators relate with citizens in a distinctive way. This is not a market-exchange relationship in which a service or commodity is offered, and customers can decide whether the price and quality are acceptable. In some interactions between citizens and officials, citizens are dependent and vulnerable and have no other source for the service. In other interactions, citizens are the “bosses” of officials. The citizens or clients who interact with public administrators have reason to expect that they will be treated fairly and with respect, that they will be informed and listened to, and that they will receive the service or benefit that they deserve.

The responsibility to the people—to serve the public interest—means that

administrators should also go beyond one-on-one encounters with individuals to consider general concerns of groups of people or society as a whole. Promoting the public interest requires attention not only to current citizens but to future generations as well (Frederickson 1997). Public administrators’ awareness of social needs and changing conditions provides the basis for identifying possible changes in procedure or policy that they may initiate or propose to administrative or political superiors. They also have a broad responsibility to make good use of the resources that have been entrusted to them whether they come from taxes or contributions.

Public administrators should also be responsible to the organization of which they are a part. This does not mean that the administrator is totally bound by the organization or loses his or her own voice in discussions of ends and means. Still, public administrators are not sole practitioners like physicians or accountants who can set up their own practice. They operate within an authority structure, they work with others to advance organizational mission, and they have a responsibility to make the organization as strong, effective, and ethical as possible.

Administrators also have a responsibility to their political superiors. This relationship involves a complex mixture of control and freedom, accountability and independence. Political-administrative relations based on shared responsibilities are essential to the duty of the public servant.

THE SETTING CONTINUED: DIFFERENCES BETWEEN GOVERNMENT AND NONPROFIT ORGANIZATIONS There are basic similarities in the positions of administrators who work in government and in nonprofit organizations. Still, it is important to recognize some significant differences between these types of organizations as well.2 Nonprofit service organizations arise from a concern about an unmet need. Ott and Dicke (2012, 3) describe their origins in this way:

Throughout the history of the United States, individual citizens repeatedly have recognized a need or a problem, attracted others who share their concern, and built a voluntary constituency that was committed to ameliorating, solving, or eliminating it, even if the issue and the people associated with it were socially undesirable at the time. In instance after instance over the decades and centuries, this voluntary process has been used to influence changes in public policy and government support—or tolerance—for what was originally an unacceptable cause, case or issue, whether it be unacceptable politically, socially, or religiously.

Nonprofits have freedom and flexibility not available to governmental organizations. This freedom applies to generating resources, but nonprofits lack the relatively certain revenues of government and the coercive power to enforce the collection of taxes. Nonprofits have a basic mission that is central to the work of the organization, and it is usually much narrower in scope than the typical general-purpose government. Nonprofits are sometimes referred to as mission-driven organizations. In a sense, the mission has an overriding impact on all those who work for a nonprofit, and this

condition differentiates it from government. Consider this comparison. City council members are elected to determine the mission and goals of their city government; the choices the members make may be hotly debated within the council and in the larger community, and the specific goals may change dramatically over time. On the other hand, the persons who work in a nonprofit as board members or as staff members typically begin with a commitment to the organization’s mission. They are expected to allow the mission to “drive” them, although they make the detailed decisions about how to translate the mission into reality at a given time. If some persons want to pursue the mission differently or pursue a different version of the mission, they may choose to leave and even to start their own organization.

This option points to another basic characteristic that makes nonprofits distinctive: nonprofit organizations are competitive service organizations. They do not have a monopoly on the provision of a service, as is sometimes the case of government agencies. In addition, they do not provide a product through the market, as is the case of businesses. Still, they offer a purpose, a service, or a product that benefits society (like government) in a competitive setting (like business). To succeed, they must attract clients, volunteers, supporters, and contributors in the face of other organizations that are trying to have the same success. Thus, the staff members in nonprofit organizations are public servants who operate in a more open, flexible, and competitive environment. The underlying presumption of this text is that the shared commitment to serve (as well as the absence of profit motive) makes the staff in nonprofit and governmental organizations more alike than different.

OVERVIEW What can this text do—and not do? It most certainly cannot “teach ethics” by specifying what is the “correct” way to behave. Furthermore, it does not “teach ethics” in the sense of introducing the reader to a previously unknown subject or by treating the reader as an ethical blank slate. You come to this text and an interest in administrative ethics with a reservoir of ethical and moral values on which you can draw. Hopefully you recorded some of those values earlier when you completed the pop quiz about your code of ethics. Rather, I write this text with the intention of helping you to understand the integral role of ethics in public administration, organize your thinking about ethics, understand the sources of ethical thinking and linkages between your personal values and the ethical values of public service, and heighten your awareness of the ethical content of work in the public sector.

If the grasp of basic ethical concepts and standards is widespread, awareness of the full range of ethical standards that apply to public administrators is less well developed. Furthermore, sophisticated and reflective ethical reasoning and the knowledge, commitment, and determination to be an autonomous ethical actor are often lacking. The text seeks to encourage you to attain this level of ethical reasoning and to enable you to do so. It seeks to arm you with the resources to recognize ethical problems that require your attention and to assert your ethical values even if others may pressure you to act unethically by commission or omission, that is, the failure to act. Finally, the text encourages you to not only steer clear of unethical behavior and helps you to avoid

ethical pitfalls but also to embrace the importance of discharging positive ethical responsibilities—doing good as well as not doing bad.

The effort starts in the next chapter where we consider the nature of ethical ideas and from where they come. We also examine more fully the various levels of ethical reasoning and help you understand where you are compared with a range of possibilities. Throughout the text, a touchstone of administrative ethics is public duty. In the chapter on refining a sense of duty, we seek to show duty as more active rather than reactive. One view of duty defines serving the public in terms of observing the law and obeying superiors. A refined sense of duty is based on careful reflection about the nature of responsibilities to the public, political superiors, and the organization. It also requires that you develop a reasoned view about your obligations and the constraints under which you operate as an individual engaged in public service. This refined sense of obligation supports postconventional ethical reasoning. The chapter on reinforcing and enlarging duty will broaden the discussion to examine the philosophical perspectives on virtues, principles, and consequences that contribute to universal standards of ethical behavior. This chapter also presents a complete model that incorporates the expanded sense of duty and philosophical perspectives, complementing the examination of the basic elements of a model of administrative ethics presented in the chapter on the ideas, sources, and development of administrative ethics. The “ethics triangle” provides guidance based on the ethical ideals of public interest, justice, character, and the greatest good. The model will be used as a framework for examining codes of ethics for professionals in government and nonprofits in the chapter on codifying duty and ethics.

Later chapters will consider ethical challenges and actions. The chapter on undermining duty identifies the extensive factors that can undermine ethics. The chapter on deciding how to meet obligations explores complex ethical problems and presents a guide to problem solving in these situations. The special considerations and complexities of a particular kind of ethical problem—whistleblowing—are presented in the chapter on acting on duty in the face of uncertainty. The distinction between internal complaints and going outside is examined along with the choice between public and anonymous whistleblowing. The chapters on elevating ethical and mandating duty explore ways to promote ethics through the actions of managers and supervisors within organizations and through external mandates, particularly ethics laws. The concluding chapter, on the duties of public administrators, summarizes the obligations and responsibilities of public administrators who are committed to a principled, virtuous, and utilitarian sense of public duty.

1 For example, a nonprofit organization that provides training in a welfare-to-work program will determine whether a client meets prescribed criteria that permit the person to continue receiving benefits. 2 The scope of nonprofit organizations is large and they vary considerably in their degree of formality. This text is written for administrators in nonprofits as opposed to board members, and I assume that they work for tax exempt 501(c)(3) organizations as defined by the Internal Revenue Service. The purposes for which these organizations are created are “charitable, religious,

educational, scientific, literary, testing for public safety, fostering national or international amateur sports competition, and preventing cruelty to children or animals.” The meaning of charitable includes the following activities: “relief of the poor, the distressed, or the underprivileged; advancement of religion; advancement of education or science; erecting or maintaining public buildings, monuments, or works; lessening the burdens of government; lessening neighborhood tensions; eliminating prejudice and discrimination; defending human and civil rights secured by law; and combating community deterioration and juvenile delinquency” (Internal Revenue Service 2012).

CHAPTER 2

Administrative Ethics: Ideas, Sources, and Development

Filling in the content of administrative ethics will proceed in two stages. In the first stage, we will define ethics in general and administrative ethics in particular and examine the prevailing or conventional model of ethical thinking among public administrators. This is called the basic ethics model. Subsequently, the major approaches to ethics will be examined in more depth, and an advanced ethical model will be developed.

The first questions pursued in this chapter are big ones. What is ethics, and how does administrative ethics differ from other standards of behavior? Where do ethical standards come from? An important source of standards is philosophy and its major theories of ethics. However, our discussion of the sources of ideas for administrative ethics will focus initially on the ethics derived from the nature of the administrative position itself; in other words, the standards and expectations that are based on a duty to serve the public. It will then be possible to consider how this duty-based ethics is linked to other approaches that draw on philosophical arguments. Finally, it is important to consider how ethical thinking develops and the alternative levels of ethical reasoning. Not all persons think about ethics in the same way or have the same depth of ethical reasoning.

The responses from other students who completed the pop quiz about what is or should be their code of ethics are linked to the sources and levels of their ethical reasoning. There is some direct evidence from the student responses as well as results from other research to justify the conclusion that the characteristics of the basic ethics model are widely held. If you have not completed the pop quiz, backtrack to the introductory chapter before going further. This chapter concludes with an examination of other key concepts and considers what ethics shares with morality and legality, and how it is different from these concepts.

DEFINITION AND THE SOURCES OF ETHICAL IDEAS A general definition of ethics follows:

Ethics refers to well-based standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do, usually in terms of duties, principles, specific virtues, or benefits to society.1

This definition identifies four dimensions or sources of ethics, one based on the nature of public service and three based on the philosophical perspectives to ethics:

1. Duties: The behaviors expected of persons who occupy certain roles; that is, the obligations taken on when assuming a role or profession

2. Virtues: Qualities that define what a good person is; moral excellence 3. Principles: Fundamental truths that form the basis for behavior; “kinds of action

that are right or obligatory” (Frankena 1963, 49) 4. Benefits to society: Actions that produce the greatest good for the greatest

number2

For persons who work in government and nonprofit organizations, duty has a special importance. They must serve the public, fulfill the expectations of public office, and be trustees of public resources. These are the actions required by their occupation or role independent of—but reinforced by—other ethical considerations.

The ethics of public administrators begins with and is grounded in duty. Duty is an old-fashioned term that at first glance may seem too narrow to be more than the starting point for developing administrative ethics. In a narrow view, duty implies the restricted range of actions one is required to take without question, as in the phrase “It is my duty to…”. Ethics implies a broader range of expected behaviors and reflection about what should be done, and definitions of duty can encompass such views. Duty means the “action required by one’s business, occupation, or function” but also “the action or behavior due by moral or legal obligation.”3 Thus, duty implies obligations, responsibilities, and meeting expectations that are imposed on the individual from outside sources. This is the tradition of external control that was promoted by Finer (1941), who argued that elected officials should exercise minute control over administrators. In this view, the most important duty is to obey authoritative orders.

Duty, however, also entails choice on the part of the officials who accept the norms established by others and augment them with their own commitment. Cooper (1982, 112) notes the following observation of Fritz Morstein Marx:

Judicial redress, official liability, and the whole gamut of disciplinary measures are poor substitutes for a sense of duty. No formal device for accountability can give us a clue as to the components of answerable conduct. One cannot commandeer responsibility. One can only cultivate it, safeguard its roots, stimulate its growth, and provide it with favorable climatic conditions.

Thus, duty as an internalized set of values is the foundation for accountability. Others have also recognized the centrality of duty and seen it as an orientation that

draws out a broad range of responsibilities. For example, Mark Moore (1981, 5) distinguishes the narrow requirements from the broader possibilities in this statement:

The duties of public officials are not simply to be passive instruments in policy-making but to work actively in establishing goals for public policy in their area, and in advocating those goals among the people who share their responsibility. In short, they have the opportunity and duty to conceive of and pursue the public interest.

Thus, duty entails not only internalized standards but also the responsibility to take

actions, such as making proposals or investigating problems, to advance the public good.

Public administration ethics is rooted in duty in the sense that persons who seek positions in government or nonprofit organizations (or who pursue educational programs to prepare themselves for such positions) are commonly motivated by a sense of duty to serve, sometimes called the public service motivation (Perry and Wise 1990). They wish to help others, to benefit society, or to serve the public interest. The public service motivation is indicated by an “attraction to policy making” and the political process; “commitment to the public interest/civic duty,” for example, doing “what is best for the whole community”; “compassion” or being “moved by the plight of the poor”; and “self-sacrifice” that is indicated by a commitment to work “for a cause bigger than myself” or being “prepared to make enormous sacrifices for the good of society” (Perry 1997, 187). The indicators are not ethical commitments in themselves, but they provide the basis for ethical values rooted in duty.

With a bit more thought, one could identify ways that administrators should handle key relationships guided by duty. The relationships are the interactions with the public, with the organization of which one is a part, and with political superiors—either elected officials (or their appointees) in government or boards of nonprofit organizations. Public administrators should not lie, withhold information, or put their own interests above serving the public. They should be accountable to their superiors and to the public. The point of these examples is simple: without even considering ethical theories or philosophy, it is possible to elaborate an extensive list of standards of right and wrong that prescribe what humans ought to do based on a sense of duty as a public servant. Thus, it is useful to start with duty-based ethics because it is obviously related to many important aspects of public service work. Furthermore, this is the kind of ethical reasoning that students in public administration and persons entering public service start with.

It is possible to expand duty-based ethics by thinking about the qualities that a person should manifest and the actions that he or she should take because that person occupies a position as a public servant. Public administrators should be honest, independent, competent, and committed to doing their best, and they should demonstrate integrity. These are virtues. They should treat all persons fairly and equally, observe the law, and follow the direction set by their leaders and their organizations. These are principles. Public administrators should try to achieve the greatest good for the most people. This is a beneficial consequence. Thus, the other dimensions of administrative ethics based on the philosophical traditions of virtue, principle, and consequences are integrally linked to conceptions of duty. These reflect common patterns of ethical thinking. In the following section, we will examine how well-established these types of thinking are in adults, particularly those attracted to public service.

Each of these dimensions can be expressed in a basic question:

• What are the expectations of persons holding public offices? (duty) • What are the qualities of a good person? (virtue) • What is the right thing to do? (principle) • What is the most beneficial action to take? (consequences)

The framework for ethics developed in this primer is not a contest between perspectives but rather a blend of perspectives. One approach is not superior or first in the sense that it is the beginning of ethical thinking from which the rest follow. As we shall see, young adults have developed most of these aspects of ethical thinking to some extent and can use them without difficulty. Still, duty has a special salience and relevance for persons who are attracted to public service positions. The service orientation seems the proximate reason for pursuing the position or career whereas the other approaches help to shape how one serves others and handles the challenges that are encountered in a public service position and career. Thus, duty is central to administrative ethics.

YOUR CODE COMPARED TO OTHERS For many years in my course on ethics and professional practice in public administration, I have been asking students in the first class session to answer the question, “What is or should be your code of ethics for work in government or nonprofit organizations?”4 As a method of examining ethical attitudes, there are some important disadvantages to using this exercise. It is done without warning and opportunity for preparation or much reflection. There is no way of knowing the level of commitment to the items that are listed, much less whether students’ actions will match their ethical intentions. Still, I feel that the exercise can be illuminating for several reasons. First, the lack of preparation contributes to spontaneity. There is no time to develop an elaborate set of statements that may not reflect the values students actually hold. Second, the responses give some indication about the nature of ethical reasoning that public administration students use. Once written, the ethical statements (or tenets) become explicit, but before the exercise, they have been implicit. These ethical standards are present without necessarily being consciously organized. Students often comment that they have never considered their code of ethics before doing the exercise, but they clearly have ethical ideas in their minds.

Students provide varying but usually extensive responses. Each distinct idea with clear ethical content is counted as a tenet. There are several features of the codes that are worth noting. Less than 1 in 5 students list only 3 or fewer tenets, and 2 in 5 provide 4 to 6 tenets. The remaining students—over 40%—list 7 or more tenets, and 15% list 10 or more. For those who could list only 3 or fewer distinct tenets, one would have to feel some concern about the limited scope of their ethical commitment (or how seriously they took the exercise). Still, a short code can be thoughtful and encompass several important concerns even though the code is not comprehensive. In the following example, a student in my spring 2002 class identified 3 of the types of ethical reasoning:

1. The first tenet of a code of ethics would be honesty. (virtue) 2. The second tenet would be to the follow the law. (principle) 3. The third tenet would be to be a just public employee. Meaning: a public

employee should always evaluate how his or her behavior affects the public, and the employee should always remember that he or she was hired to work for the public. (duty)

A student in 2009 provided several examples of each type of ethical reasoning:

1. Never harm individuals. (principle) 2. Never deceive others, be honest. (principle/virtue) 3. Never favor individuals, remain unbiased and equal. (principle) 4. Develop policy that is fair and equal. (duty) 5. Listen to others, value people’s opinions. (duty) 6. Be responsible for one’s actions, even if you make mistakes; own up. (duty) 7. Don’t steal. (principle) 8. Weigh all options when making decisions, don’t be in rush. (sound practice)

From examining these statements, it is clear that most students carry around in their heads something approximating a code of ethics before they have taken a course on professional ethics. Still, the scope of values and expectations incorporated in that code varies considerably. How does your code compare in terms of its length and scope?

Each statement was examined to determine what approach to ethical thinking is reflected: duty/public service, virtue, principle, consequences, or some other source. Obviously, this is a subjective judgment. The following guidelines, which were used in making the classification, are based on the characteristics of each approach to ethics. Tenets that stressed public service or behaviors that are expected because one is a public employee were classified as duty based. Tenets that included general statements about what one should do were classified as principle based. For example, saying “An official should not deceive the public” was considered a duty, whereas the statement “A person should never lie” was considered a principle. Tenets that stressed qualities (how a person should be as opposed to what he or she should do) were considered virtue based. For example, in contrast to the principle about not lying, “One should be honest” is considered virtue based. A tenet that stressed doing what helped the most people or produced good outcomes was considered consequentialist, whereas a general statement about promoting the public interest was considered duty based. To give examples, the classification for the tenets in the examples just given was indicated in brackets at the end of each tenet. The summary classification of the reasoning contained in the student statements suggests the characteristics of a basic model of ethics. It is presented in Table 2–1.

Table 2–1. Type of Ethical Reasoning Reflected in Statements

Percentage Number Based on duty/public service 37.4% 325 Virtue 20.9% 182 Principle 28.9% 251 Consequences 0.8% 7 Professional standards 10.5% 91 Other 1.5% 13

100.0% 869

Note: A total of 131 students listed 869 separate tenets.

Based on this analysis of all statements, duty-based reasoning is the most common, representing over one-third of all tenets that could be classified. Principle-based and virtue-based reasoning are also very common. The following is a list of examples of each type of statement ordered from most to least common within each category.

Statements based on duty or public service:

• Serve the public. • Avoid conflict of interest or personal gain. • Promote the public interest. • Act as a steward of public resources. • Take responsibility for actions; be accountable. • Share or disclose information to the public. • Blow the whistle (report) on wrongdoing.

Statements based on virtue:

• Display honesty. • Show integrity. • Be respectful. • Be consistent. • Avoid impropriety.

Statements based on principle:

• Follow the laws, policies, or regulations. • Act with fairness. • Treat all equally. • Protect confidential information. • Follow the Golden Rule. • Do not lie.

In addition, a modest number of statements are based on standards of professional practice rather than other forms of ethical reasoning. Examples are maintaining a professional demeanor, sharing credit with coworkers, or taking time to make decisions.

It is interesting to note that students do not use consequences as the basis for ethical tenets. It seems likely that making choices to produce good outcomes is common behavior, but it appears that students do not necessarily see such behaviors as ethical in nature. In fact, the argument that the “ends justifies the means” is likely to be seen as a rationalization for a questionable action rather than an ethical justification. One may choose to take the action justified in this way, but it is not considered to be ethical. It appears that consequentialist thinking is not an important aspect of a basic approach to

administrative ethics. It is also possible to focus on the overall code of each student (as opposed to

analyzing the breakdown of the separate tenets). Almost every student in this exercise includes in their code at least one tenet that is based on duty or commitment to public service. Almost as many—approximately three out of four—use principle and virtue as the basis for tenets. As noted, very few use consequentialist reasoning.

Thus, all the approaches except consequentialism are present in the thinking of most public administration students. Still, from the samples that are offered, it is apparent that none of these ways of thinking about ethics in public administration is fully developed. This suggests that the underlying concepts are not fully understood before students have undertaken formal study of administrative ethics. With study and reflection, it is possible to deepen ethical thinking by more fully understanding the ethical approaches that are being used informally and by more clearly linking these approaches to the issues and challenges of public service.

What about the code that you wrote? How many tenets did you include, recognizing that you may have combined more than one in a single statement? What kinds of reasoning were reflected in your tenets?

Another vantage point on the nature of ethical standards comes from a study of practitioners in state and local government. In survey of 52 administrators in state and local government in midwestern states, Molina and McKeown (2012) examine the importance assigned to 30 value statements drawn from the public administration literature. Thirteen of these statements were in the upper portion of the rankings based on two measures. The average importance based on a 4-point rating was greater than 3.5; that is, their overall assessment tended to be that the value is “always important.” In addition, these values were most likely to be included in a separate list provided by the respondents of the top five values that they found important in their work as an administrator. The values with the definitions offered by Molina and McKeown are included in Table 2–2 along with the percentage of respondents who consider the value to be always important and who include it in the top five list.

The two approaches to assessing importance indicate some differences. If the inclusion of a value in the top five list suggests that these are the core values that are given precedence or relied on in the toughest decisions, then the values of benevolence, incorruptibility, serviceability, and humaneness may be left out. Even lawfulness, effectiveness, and impartiality are included in the top five by less than one in four of these practitioners.

As in the students’ codes of ethics, the most importance is assigned to values grounded in virtue and the duties that promote public service. Principles are underrepresented in the choices of practitioners, although the list from which they chose did not include the simple values of treating all persons with fairness and treating all persons equally. Two of the values in the top 13 may be considered ethical in the sense of being a standard of rightness, or they might be viewed as indicators of professionalism. Administrators with high professional competence are committed to achieving effective results and to acting based on expertise. Viewed from an ethical perspective, a good administrator does not tolerate a lack of commitment to results or acting in ways that are not consistent with competence, skill, and knowledge.

Table 2–2. Most Important Values to Practitioners

Data from Molina, Anthony DeForest, and Cassandra McKeown. 2012. “The Heart of the Profession: Understanding Public Service Values.” Journal of Public Affairs Education 18: 375– 396, Tables 2, 3, and 4. “Approach to Ethics” category added by author.

The values that are rated lower than those included in Table 2–2 or are less likely to be included on the most important list offer insights into the ethical views of practitioners. The more demanding virtue of courage was ranked lower (considered always important by 48%). Values with a greater social dimension are ranked lower.

These are promoting the public interest (42%), promoting social justice (38%), and advancing sustainability (19%). Values that deal with the administrator’s orientation to citizens and encouraging their participation were less likely to be viewed as always important.5 These values are the following:

• Transparency: To act in a manner that is open and visible to citizens, customers, and other relevant stakeholders (46%)

• Inclusiveness: To act in a manner that includes citizens, customers, and other relevant stakeholders in the decision-making process (37%)

• Responsiveness: To act in a manner that is in accordance with the preferences of citizens, customers, and other relevant stakeholders (27%)

• Representative: To act in a manner that is consistent with the values of citizens (23%)

• Pluralism: To act in a manner that seeks to accommodate the interests of a diverse citizenry (21%)

• Participative: To act in a manner that promotes active citizen participation in administrative decision making (15%)

These practitioners evidence a strong commitment to serve the public, but assign less importance to incorporating them in the process of governance.

Over half (54%) feel it is always important to act in a manner that promotes the organization’s interest—an orientation that can lead to slighting other values. Many assigned high importance to obeying superiors (40%) but relatively few view collegiality (i.e., acting loyally toward their colleagues) in this way (23%). There is little inclination to assign high important to practical accomplishments with little ethical content, for example, being innovative (38%) and being efficient (33%). Furthermore, these practitioners are unlikely to assign great importance to promoting one’s own interest (21%) or seeking to advance the financial gains for the organization (12%).

We see that students studying public administration and practitioners of public administration at the state and local level have a substantial array of ethical standards that they can identify or to which they assign importance. They draw on three of four approaches to understanding ethics. Still, each of these approaches could be developed in greater depth and expanded in scope. The duty-based approach involves the nature of the public service position and the handling of critical relationships. In other words, what are my duties as a public servant and what kind of behavior is expected of me as I interact with political superiors, the public, and my organization? The other ethical perspectives can be studied on their own and as sources of questions that broaden and deepen duty-based ethics: What kind of person should I be, what is the right thing to do, and how much emphasis should be placed on achieving good results as I do my duty? By organizing and integrating these approaches, I hope that the reader will have a stronger and richer sense of what it means to do one’s duty in public service and will be better equipped to accomplish it.

In short, duty—the core of the public service ethic—is reinforced and expanded by balancing attention to virtue, principle, and good consequences. Thus, we may revise the earlier definition to create this definition of administrative ethics:

Administrative ethics refers to well-based standards of right and wrong that prescribe what public administrators ought to do in terms of duty to public service, principles, virtues, and benefits to society.

Students in public administration programs and persons in public service very likely have a working version of this definition in their heads and carry around tenets that are based on duty, virtue, and principle. The challenge is to bring this definition forward in the consciousness of public administrators and to deepen and broaden the understanding of what it means. You may also think about whether considering consequences can make a contribution to ethical reasoning. In other words, you are challenged to further develop your ethical judgment. Before thinking about doing that, however, it is important to consider in general how ethical reasoning develops and better understand the levels of ethical reasoning.

ETHICAL DEVELOPMENT How people acquire attitudes about ethics and morality is a large topic, but it is important to examine the question briefly here as part of the introduction to the subject of administrative ethics. As noted, adults, obviously including those who work or wish to work in government or nonprofits, are likely to have a reservoir of ethical ideas and moral commitments. In the process of growing up, getting an education, and absorbing values from people around them, they are undergoing moral development that takes them through different stages of reasoning about why they should act in a moral or ethical way and what it means to be a moral person. Family interactions influence development. Membership in a church or an organization such as the Boy Scouts, Girl Scouts, or Boys and Girls Club expose children to experiences that are intentionally designed to promote social and moral development.

Lawrence Kohlberg (1981) offers a model of moral judgment to help understand how the capacity for ethical reasoning develops and explains the motives for acting at different stages of development. Kohlberg is concerned with morality broadly, but we can assume that the level of moral reasoning will be transferred to the way that individuals make ethical judgments about their role and behavior in an organization or profession. Stated differently, we expect that individuals will work through choices about behavior at the same level whether they are making a moral choice in their personal life or an ethical choice in their work as a public administrator.

Kohlberg identified six stages that children go through in the maturation process as they are influenced by a variety of socializing forces. The levels are preconventional levels, where the child is starting to respond to rules but has values that are self- centered; conventional levels, where the older child and adult internalizes the values of doing the right thing in order to meet the expectations of others or to comply with prevailing standards; and postconventional or principled levels, where moral values are grounded in universal principles (Stewart and Sprinthall 1994; Kohlberg 1981).6 The levels and Kohlberg’s (1981, 17–19) Stages of Moral Development are the following:

LEVEL STAGE SOCIAL ORIENTATION Preconventional 1 Punishment and obedience

2 Instrumental relativist Conventional 3 “Good boy; nice girl” 4 Society maintaining/law and order Postconventional 5 Social contract 6 Universal ethical principle

Kohlberg believes that the stages always occur in this order, and that people always incorporate the values of one stage before moving to the next. Although others argue that reasoning may draw from more that one stage, it is presumed that each stage reflects a dominant mode of thinking about moral choices at any given time. Most adults have moved to Stage 4, but most do not move beyond that stage. Stage 4 reflects reasoning that emphasizes what is legal and supports social institutions. Sophisticated moral or ethical reasoning, on the other hand, reflects postconventional thinking, but it appears that this level of reasoning is somewhat uncommon. Thus, an important implication of this work is that all persons go through a progression of thinking about morality in which they broaden their views to think about what is good for society, not just for themselves. At Stage 4, they have developed “a conception of the social system as a consistent set of codes and procedures that apply impartially to all members” based on law or religious canon, and “the pursuit of individual interests is considered legitimate only when it is consistent with maintenance of the socio-moral system as a whole” (Colby and Kohlberg 1987, 28–29). There is a connection between these characteristics and the ethical reasoning we have observed in students and practitioners that emphasizes duty to serve others, virtue, and basic principles.

Kohlberg’s model is also useful for identifying why people behave the way they do at each of the differing levels of morality. Each stage is associated with a different motive for following rules or taking moral action. Kohlberg (1981, 19, 411–412) offers these “word pictures” of the reasons for behavior in each stage:

1. Punishment and obedience: Stimulus/response Obey rules to avoid punishment

2. Instrumental relativist: Self-serving good behavior Conform to obtain rewards, have favors returned, and generate others’ goodwill

3. “Good boy; nice girl”: Meeting the expectations of others with whom one interacts Conform to avoid disapproval and dislike by others

4. Society maintaining/law and order: Meeting standards imposed by society through law and convention Conform to avoid censure by legitimate authorities and resulting guilt

5. Social contract: Seeking to promote rights of all as agreed to by society Conform to maintain respect of the impartial observer judging in terms of community welfare

6. Universal ethical principle: Seeking to act in ethically principled way Conform to avoid self-condemnation for failing to live up to the values to which one is committed

These motives are ones to which we can easily relate in our everyday or organizational lives. At Stage 1, a person does whatever he or she can get away with and avoid getting caught and punished. Some cynics portray this orientation as common among self-serving public administrators. It would represent a base level of moral reasoning and is likely to be rare, although instances of such behavior certainly occur in government and nonprofit organizations. Stage 2 reflects a narrow cost–benefit calculation: “I will follow the rules because I benefit more from doing so than from breaking the rules.” There is no respect for the value of the rules themselves. Ethical standards are low and likely to stress what one should not do. Stages 3 and 4 differ in the breadth and source of expectations. When we act at Stage 3, we do the right thing because it is expected by those with whom we interact. We do not want to disappoint them or let them down, and we do not want to incur their displeasure. It is a highly personalized approach to deciding what is right and wrong, and the standards are influenced by our perceptions of the expectations of others and a feeling of loyalty to them.

Persons acting at the Stage 4 level accept the legitimacy of laws and other rules of behavior, including codes of ethics. They feel obligated to act in terms of these laws, policies, and rules based on the narrow or reactive sense of duty described earlier. In the view of Rest and his colleagues (1999, 38), conventional morality “is duty oriented and authoritarian (in the sense of affording unchallenged powers to authorities and in deferring to authorities).” Persons at this stage may not understand the reasons for the rules or feel a sense of commitment to the principles or purposes on which they are based, but they feel an obligation to follow the rules. They feel a sense of guilt when they do not.

The postconventional stages are somewhat difficult to distinguish and now are usually combined by scholars. For example, Stewart and Sprinthall (1994) refer to the P stage or principled stage.7 The P stage reflects a deeper understanding and broader commitment than Stage 4. At this level, there would be much more likelihood of critically examining the reasons for acting and seeking to alter unfair laws, policies, and rules than at the lower levels. For example, Kohlberg had great respect for Martin Luther King, Jr., who for principled reasons resisted and acted to change unjust laws. Rest and his colleagues provide this description of postconventional ethical reasoning:

The positive and constructive aspect of postconventional thinking is to provide some idealized way that humans can interrelate, some ideals for organizing society. Examples of ideals for society that have been proposed include creating the greatest good for all, guaranteeing minimal rights and protection for everyone, engendering caring and intimacy among people, mandating fair treatment, providing for the needy, furthering the common good, actualizing personhood, and so on. (Rest et al. 1999, 42)

In their view, the ideals of postconventional thinking are “sharable”—not supported by dogma and the preferences of a selected group—and thus open to rational critique and subject to the test of logical consistency (Rest et al. 1999, 42). It is noteworthy that the examples offered by Rest and his colleagues include the consequentialist approach (“creating the greatest good for all”), the principle-based approach (“guaranteeing minimal rights and protection for everyone”), and the duty-based approach (“furthering the common good”).

Why do you act the way you do when you decide what is right and wrong in your professional work? Presumably your reasons go beyond Stage 1 (simply avoiding punishment for doing something that violates policy or rules), but there are widely supported explanations of motivation that approximate Stage 2. One may be good for self-serving reasons. Public-choice theory in general, and principal-agent models in particular, assume that pursuit of self-interest is the key factor that drives behavior (Peters 1999). One may do what is right and expected in order to obtain rewards or cooperate with others to reduce transaction costs (being trustworthy so that favors will be returned), but the underlying concern is self-interest. Unfortunately, this motivation is a limited and narrow foundation for ethical action.

Reasons for acting ethically that extend farther beyond one’s self are found at the conventional stage. The good-boy/nice-girl orientation involves meeting the expectations of others, especially coworkers. Presumably, the expectations of the “organization” also have weight in defining behavior, although the expectations may be shaped more by the response of immediate superiors and coworkers than by the broad purposes and values of the organization. At this stage, you conform to avoid disapproval and dislike by others or the sense that you are out-of-step with prevailing values in the work group. In contrast, at Stage 4, one’s behavior is guided by standards that are embedded in law and convention. In other words, the standards have been codified, and you are motivated to follow the standards to maintain order in society. An important aspect of these types of ethical reasoning is that there is limited internal control—or internalized reasons, if you prefer—for ethical action. One is guided by the reaction of others or external standards that are accepted with little reflection.

At the postconventional stages, one has socially beneficial reasons for acting ethically. There may be concern for expanding shared benefits or promoting the public interest. There may be a commitment to act in an ethically principled way, which entails having a grasp of guiding principles and the ability to apply them appropriately to a given situation. One does not operate “above the law” in the sense that one is free to decide whether to follow the law. Still one is “beyond the law” in the sense that one understands the reason for the law, is able to relate it to broader reasons for ethical action, and is capable of questioning whether change in the law—or in policy or program goals—should be considered.

It is not clear from research on moral development what proportion of adults attains this level of moral reasoning. Kohlberg found that most middle-class Americans were at Stage 4 and that Stages 5 and 6 reasoning was relatively uncommon. Most college students operate at Stages 3 and 4 (Gardiner 1998). Stewart, Sprinthall, and Kem (2002) in their inventory of ethical reasoning in resolving hypothetical dilemmas in government found that public administrators in the United States and Poland are most likely to use Stage 4 reasoning, somewhat less likely to use principled stage reasoning, and least likely to use Stages 1–3. Using the DIT, Rest and his colleagues found that the reliance on the P stage thinking advances with higher education and can be the dominant mode of reasoning for a specialized group such as graduate students in political theory and moral philosophy (Rest et al. 1999, 67–68). Furthermore, educational intervention to broaden ethical thinking can increase the use of P stage reasoning (Rest et al. 1999, 74–75). Most useful in raising the level of moral reasoning are techniques that include the active involvement of students in learning (Gardiner

1998, 73). Considering cases that present moral dilemmas and relating the levels of moral development to resolving these dilemmas help students recognize how one reasons at a higher level. We will use these strategies throughout the text. As you explore a topic or examine a case study, it is useful to consider why you think about alternatives in the way you do when confronted with an ethical choice and whether there are alternative ways to think about the situation. Educational approaches with active learning of this kind in courses that concentrate on ethics taught by capable instructors can elevate students’ Kohlberg stage scores (Jurkiewicz 2002).

BASIC COMPONENTS OF ADMINISTRATIVE ETHICS We have examined the meaning of administrative ethics and briefly introduced philosophical approaches to ethics, the content of ethical thinking typically expressed by persons interested in public service but without formal education in ethics, and the major stages in the development of ethical reasoning. Together they represent the basic elements—a basic model—of administrative ethics. We introduce the components at this point in the discussion for two reasons. First, it closely reflects the attitudes that are commonly held by those who enter public service or have been working for government and nonprofit organizations. Second, the elements will be developed further at a later point in the discussion. Some time ago, I suggested that a person can think of ethics as a triangle with the points defined by the three philosophical approaches: virtue, principle, and consequences (Svara 1997). It has been a useful approach is the classroom and in training activities with practitioners, and it is the advanced model to which we shall return—but how do we get to this model of ethics, both conceptually and developmentally? The foundation on which we build is the simpler and not-quite- complete version composed of the basic components presented here. The basic components reflect Stage 4 ethical reasoning, whereas the advanced model to be developed later will reflect a principled level of ethical reasoning.

In the basic components, there is a strong emphasis on basic duties, principles of fairness and legality, and the virtues of honesty and integrity. It seems appropriate to place duty at the center, in particular the commitment to serve the public and the obligation to put the interest of the public above one’s personal self-interest. It is striking that many students in their implicit codes of ethics mentioned some aspect of selflessness: not seeking inappropriate personal gain from holding office and steering clear of situations that create a conflict of interest. Similarly, practitioners surveyed by Molina and McKeown (2012) assigned great importance to being incorruptible in the sense of not acting to advance one’s own private interests. In addition, they gave the highest rankings to honest, integrity, and obeying the law along with promoting what is good for citizens. Despite the importance of consequentialism as a major conceptual approach to thinking about ethics, it does not seem to be an important part of the basic way that public servants think about their ethical standards. The basic components that involve the interplay of duty, virtue, and principle are presented in Figure 2–1.

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Consultation In Schools homework help

Consultation In Schools homework help

Thomas J. Kampwirth Kristin M. Powers

Collaborative Consultation in the Schools

Effective Practices for Students with Learning and Behavior Problems

FIFTH EdITIon

Collaborative Consultation in the Schools

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Collaborative Consultation in the Schools

Effective Practices for Students with Learning and Behavior Problems

F i f t h E d i t i o n

Thomas J. Kampwirth Professor Emeritus, California State University, Long Beach

Kristin M. Powers California State University, Long Beach

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Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Kampwirth, Thomas J. Collaborative consultation in the schools : effective practices for students with learning and behavior problems /

Thomas J. Kampwirth, Professor Emeritus, California State University, Long Beach, Kristin M. Powers, California State University, Long Beach.—Fifth edition.

pages cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-0-13-382713-2 (alk. paper) — ISBN 0-13-382713-5 (alk. paper) 1. Educational counseling—United States. 2. Group work in education—United States. 3. Learning disabled

children—Services for—United States. 4. Problem children—Services for—United States. 5. School management and organization—United States. I. Powers, Kristin M. II. Title.

LB1027.5.K285 2016 371.4’220973—dc23

2014035167

10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1

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I dedicate this text to my wife Frieda; our children, Kathy, Tom, and Ed; and our grandchildren, Alyssa, Shane, Conor, Elise, and Addie Lu,

and our great grandson, Asher.

—T.K.

I dedicate this text to my husband, Mark, and our children Jordan, Cassidy, and Felix.

—K.P.

ABouT ThE AuThorS

Thomas J. Kampwirth is Professor Emeritus in the Advanced Studies in Education and Counseling Department at California State University, Long Beach. He taught in the areas of special education and school psychology from 1971 through 2004 and was coordinator of the school psychology program for 25 years. From 1980 through 2009 he was a consulting school psychologist for the special education programs operated by the Orange County Department of Education. Dr. Kampwirth served as a special education teacher and school psychologist in numerous districts in Illinois, Arizona, and California. His research interests include aptitude– treatment interactions and consultation processes. He received his doctorate in school psychol- ogy from the University of Illinois in 1968. In 2003, he was given the Lifetime Achievement Award by the National Association of School Psychologists.

Kristin M. Powers is Professor of School Psychology and Director of the Community Clinic for Counseling and Educational Services at California State University, Long Beach. Her research on transition planning, instructional consultation, and disproportional representation in special e ducation has been published in state and national journals. She is Co-Project Director of two Office of Special Education Program (OSEP) grants focused on advanced training in instruc- tional consultation and multi-tiered systems of support. She is a founding board member of the Consortium to Promote School Psychology in Vietnam (CASP-V). She worked as a school p sychologist and administrative assistant for the Long Beach Unified School District (LBUSD). She received her doctorate in educational psychology from the University of Minnesota school psychology program in 1998.

PrEFACE

Collaborative Consultation in the Schools: Effective Practices for Students with Learning and Behavior Problems was written with two different audiences in mind: university students and practitioners in the schools. University students are likely to be doing advanced work in special education, school psychology, school counseling, or educational administration. Practitioners in schools are currently employed in these professions and are being asked increasingly to help oth- ers, usually teachers or parents, solve learning and behavior problems. In this book, we present the consultation process as a collaborative, problem-solving endeavor designed to assist consult- ees in their work with students who have, or are at risk for, behavioral or learning problems. A key focus is on consultants bridging the gap between research and practice in schools. Whether it is designing an intensive academic intervention, assisting a teacher in improving his classroom management, or developing a transition plan for a student with a low incidence disability, the consultant should strive to initiate evidence-based practices whenever possible. A second key theme to this consultation text is providing interventions that are proportional to the students’ needs. Through data-based system change, schools are redistributing their resources along multi- tiered systems of support (MTSSs), so those in greatest need receive the most intensive help. MTSS (which includes response to intervention [RtI] and schoolwide positive behavior support [SWPBS]) requires collaborative consultation to be successful.

Consultation as a service delivery system in the public schools has increased in popularity since the late 1990s. Prior to 1990, most special and general educators were still expected to deal on their own with whatever problems they experienced in their teaching or management of chil- dren; indeed, those who sought help may have been regarded as unable to deal with the job of teaching and subtly, or overtly, rejected by their peers or supervisors. To a lesser extent, this iso- lationism continues today in our schools and can be a formidable barrier for school consultants. Good interpersonal, problem-solving, and communication skills; the building of trust; and a change in the school culture to be more collaborative can reduce these barriers, as we discuss at length in this text. The goal of collaborative consultation is synergism, wherein the dyad or team produce better results than if each person works in isolation. Adhering to the problem-solving process, including data-based goal setting and evaluation, is critical to achieving synergism.

Since the Education for all Handicapped Children Act of 1977, teacher assistance teams, student study teams, transition planning teams, and individualized education programming teams and a host of other formal and semiformal team arrangements have been developed to meet the needs of students who require some degree of assistance to be successful in school. Indeed, it would be surprising to find a school today that did not depend on its student study team to dis- cuss and develop interventions for students at risk of school failure. These team interactions also meet the needs of parents in their efforts to understand and support their children.

Beyond what takes place in team meetings is a real need for everyday assistance for both special education teachers, who are providing direct teaching services to students with disabili- ties, and general educators, who are charged with teaching students with disabilities in addition to a large cadre of other vulnerable and marginalized students. This text is primarily devoted to helping those who assist special and general educators and support services personnel to deal with the everyday, ongoing challenges presented by underperforming students. Most school per- sonnel are involved in problem-solving student problems case by case, whether formally or informally. Some believe that greater efficiencies and a larger impact can be made by changing how the school operates. MTSSs can happen in a school only when school personnel have learned the value of collaborative problem solving as opposed to isolated work. In an MTSS school, school personnel have a shared sense of responsibility to the students and frequently examine data and discuss how to improve student outcomes. Job descriptions and expectations have changed accordingly. Special education teachers are increasingly leaving their resource room and special day classes to consult with general education teachers. School psychologists are embracing more intervention-based assessments and are taking increased responsibility for assisting in the development and evaluation of appropriate interventions. School counselors are more likely to see if they can be of assistance with some referrals through consultation with teachers and parents in conjunction with individual or group counseling efforts. Mentor teachers,

vii

viii Preface

vice principals, and others are also seeing their roles expand to include consultation, particularly when engaged in school reform. We hope that the combination of scientifically based practices, practical advice, and case studies presented in this text will assist the reader in providing effec- tive consultation to colleagues and families.

New to this editioN

The fifth edition has been updated significantly. It includes a new chapter (Chapter 8) on transi- tion planning for students with disabilities preparing for adulthood (this chapter is co-authored by Edwin Achola). The main thrust of this revision has been to update the evidence-based prac- tices based on current research and to add video clips to the text and activities to provide addi- tional details and dimensions to the concepts. We also replaced the term response to intervention (RtI) with the more encompassing term multi-tiered systems of support (MTSS) in order to emphasize the parallels between RtI and school-wide positive behaviour support (SWPBS). The fifth edition also provides more information on serving students with autism spectrum disorder (ASD), including a detailed case-study in Chapter 10. Finally, we provide more coverage on how technology can be used in consultation and professional development.

Some additional updates include the following:

• A description and possible implications of the Common Core State Standards for consult- ants (Chapters 1 and 7)

• More information on working with paraprofessionals (Chapter 2) • A list of do’s and don’ts in using electronic communications in consultation (Chapter 4) • Tips for providing legal testimony (Chapter 5) • Information and activities on the Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act (FERPA) and

the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPPA; Chapter 5) • Changes included in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental

Disorders (Chapter 6) • The theory and research on microaggressions experienced by cultural and language minor-

ities (Chapter 4) • An expanded treatment fidelity section has been included, along with a treatment fidelity

assessment observation form (Chapter 3) • An effective instruction observation/feedback form for school-based consultants (Chapter 7)

We think one of the most valuable additions to the text has been the insertion of video clips. Short, 2- to 3-minute video clips introduce the reader to important concepts. Longer clips are contained in the activities. Course instructors or staff members involved in professional devel- opment can show these clips and engage in highly nuanced, relevant discussions. Thus, the fifth edition of Collaborative Consultation in the Schools is an interactive text that prepares students for the demands of school-based consultation like no other text before. In addition, we examined the Educational Testing Services (ETS) study companions for (a) School Psychology, (b) Professional School Counselor, (c) Special Education: Core Knowledge, (d) Special Education: Core Knowledge Mild to Moderate Applications, and (e) Educational Leadership: Administration and Supervision to confirm that the content of this text, including its activities, will support students in acquiring knowledge of many of the topics covered by these exams.

22 Chapter 2 • Consultation Models and Professional Practices

To view a video of this type of negative and positive reinforcement, also known as coer- cive pain control (Rhode & Jensen, 2010) see https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=OxdtMVww2q0. Because student’s noncompliance or work avoidance is negatively reinforced when teachers remove their demands, Rhode and Jensen (2010) recommend that teachers use precision commands in which compliance is immediately reinforced, and the stu- dent receives a punishment after failing to comply with a request that has been repeated once. Punishment is the delivery of some aversive stimulus or removal of a desired stimulus in order to decrease a behavior (Alberto & Troutman, 2013). While punishment can be effective, it should never be humiliating or painful. Reinforcing positive and competing behaviors (i.e., work completion or compliance) is often both more productive and humane than punishing undesired behaviors.

In some cases, an action designed to be reinforcing, like delivering verbal praise, could be felt as a punishment (the student does not want any attention called to her). This case raises the question, “How does one know whether an adult or peer response to a targeted behavior is reinforcing or punishing?” The answer lies only in a careful study of the data. Is the targeted behavior decreasing as a function of the consequences it elicits? If so, then these consequences are probably best interpreted as aversive or punishing. Are behaviors increasing as a result of the responses that follow these behaviors? If so, then the consequences are probably positively reinforcing the behavior.

Activity 2.3

Watch the tutorial on how to conduct an antecedent, behavior, and consequence (ABC) analysis at https://www.youtube.com/ watch?v=GxcIM8klHuY and complete the

ABC analysis found on the video clip for the target behavior: yelling in the classroom.

Activity 2.4

A teacher tells you that she is concerned about a student who is anxious. What else do you, as a behaviorally oriented consultant, want to know about the child? What are the behaviors

of anxiety? Which can be treated, the anxiety or the behaviors? How might a traditional behaviorist differ from a cognitively oriented behaviorist in his approach to this problem?

BAsic Beliefs undeRlying A BehAvioRAl APPRoAch to consultAtion The behavioral tradition focuses on behaviors that are either observable to the teacher or parent or reportable by the student; it contrasts with the medical-model approach, which focuses on pathology or sickness within the child. Hypothetical constructs and pseudo-explanatory con- cepts and labels, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), conduct disorder, or others listed in the fifth edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (American Psychiatric Association, 2013), are not regarded as constructive except for purposes of communication among professional staff members and parents. The behaviorist does not say that a student is out of her seat and running around the room because she has ADHD. Rather, the behaviorist is inclined to say that the student engages in an excessive amount of out-of-seat behavior (operationally defined and usually determined in relation to a norm for a given class- room or other setting) and will help to develop an intervention to change the behavior by changing either the antecedent (adjust difficulty of seatwork, move desk to quiet corner, etc.) and/or consequence events (provide short breaks contingent on work completion, implement a self-monitoring program with a highly desired reward for improved on-task behavior, etc.). To learn if the intervention has been successful, a behaviorist charts the occurrence and dura- tion of out-of-seat behavior or some other targeted behavior. The behaviorist’s goal is to reduce the frequency of symptoms because, as the behaviorist believes, the symptom is the disease (Ullmann & Krasner, 1965).

M02_KAMP7132_05_SE_C02.indd Page 22 08/11/14 7:44 AM Aptara /203/PH01900/9780133827132_KAMPWIRTH/KAMPWIRTH_COLLABORATIVE_CONSULTATION_IN_THE_ …

AckNowledgmeNts

We would like to acknowledge Edwin Achola’s contributions to Chapter 8. As a co-author of this chapter, his insights and expertise on transition planning are essential to the final product. We would also like to thank the following reviewers of the fifth edition: John D. Hall, Arkansas State University, Cindy Topdemir, University of South Florida, Elena Zaretsky, University of Massachusetts, Boston.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GxcIM8klHuY

Brief Contents

Chapter 1 Overview of School-Based Consultation 1

Chapter 2 Consultation Models and Professional Practices 19

Chapter 3 Problem-Solving Consultation in a Multi-Tiered System of Support 50

Chapter 4 Communication and Interpersonal Skills 83

Chapter 5 Legal and Ethical Issues in School Consultation 124

Chapter 6 Consulting About Students with Social, Emotional, and/or Behavioral Problems 137

Chapter 7 Consulting About Students with Academic Skill Problems 173

Chapter 8 Transition Planning 198

Chapter 9 Systems-Level Consultation: The Organization as the Target of Change 214

Chapter 10 Case Studies in Collaborative Consultation 236

Index 251

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ConTEnTS

chapter 1 overview of school-BAsed coNsultAtioN 1 Learning Outcomes 1

Consultation and Collaboration: Definitions, Distinctions, and Characteristics 1

Collaborative Consultation as an Indirect Service 2

Defining Characteristics and Expectations of Collaborative Consultation 5

The Triadic Nature of Consultation 7

The Role of Process and Content Expertise in Consultation 7

Consultation at Different Levels of Problem Severity 8

Recent Changes in Education Affecting School Consultation 9

Common Core Standards 9

No Child Left Behind 10

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 10

Response to Intervention/Multi-Tiered System of Services 13

The Present Status of Collaborative Consultation in Schools 14

Research on the Effectiveness of School Consultation 15 Summary 16 • References 17

chapter 2 coNsultAtioN models ANd ProfessioNAl PrActices 19 Learning Outcomes 19

A Rationale for a Model 19

Two Theoretical Traditions 20

Behavioral Paradigm 20

Mental Health Paradigm 25

Functional Consultation Models 29

Conjoint Behavioral Consultation 29

Instructional Consultation 30

Ecobehavioral Consultation 31

Consultee-Centered Consultation 31

Consultation Configurations and Settings 32

Beginning Teacher Support Consultation 32

Professional Learning Communities 33

Collaborating with Paraprofessionals 34

Coteaching for Inclusion 34

Individualized Education Program Team 35

Student Study Teams 37

Roles, Skills, and Activities of School-Based Consultants 44 Summary 47 • References 47

chapter 3 ProBlem-solviNg coNsultAtioN iN A multi-tiered system of suPPort 50 Learning Outcomes 50

Steps to Follow in the Consultation Process 51

Establish Rapport 52

Problem Identification 52

Problem Analysis 54

Intervention Development and Implementation 56

Evaluate the Effectiveness of the Interventions and Recycle If Necessary 58

Multi-Tiered System of Support 58

Tier 1: Universal Prevention 59

Tier 2: Targeted Intervention 61

Tier 3: Intensive Interventions 68

Assessment 69

Planning or Modifying Interventions 72

Treatment Integrity 74

Treatment Acceptability 75

Performance Feedback 75

Assessing Treatment Integrity 77 Summary 79 • References 80

chapter 4 commuNicAtioN ANd iNterPersoNAl skills 83 Learning Outcomes 83

Communication Skills 84

Attending 84

Active (Reflective) Listening 84

Reframing 85

Empathy 86

Keeping a Goal Orientation 86

Asking Questions 88

Potential Difficulties in Communication 90

Evaluating Your Communication Skills 91

Communication Technologies 92

Interpersonal Skills 93

Forging Positive Relationships 94

Conveying Competence and Confidence 94

Projecting the Idea That the Situation Is Going to Improve 95

Following through with Enthusiasm 95

Developing and Maintaining Trust 96

Treating Consultees as Adults 96

Power in the Consultative Relationship 96

Referent Power 97

Expert Power 97

Informational Power 98

The Dominance Debate 99

Resistance 100

Types of Resistance 101

Causes of Resistance 102

Overcoming Resistance 107

xii Contents

Gaining and Delivering Information 111

The Interview 111

Taking Notes and Keeping Track 113

Delivering Feedback 113

Consulting with Parents and Families 114

Resistance by Parent-Consultees 117

Consultation in Culturally and Linguistically Diverse Settings 117 Summary 121 • References 121

Chapter 5 LegaL and ethiCaL issues in sChooL ConsuLtation 124 Learning Outcomes 124

The Purpose, Sources, and Importance of Ethical Practice 124

Principles of Ethical Behavior 125

Principle 1: Competence 125

Principle 2: Protecting the Welfare of Clients 125

Principle 3: Maintaining Confidentiality 126

Principle 4: Social and Moral Responsibility 127

Principle 5: Integrity in Professional Relationships 127

Codes of Ethics and Standards for Professional Practice 127

Legal Issues 128

Providing Legal Testimony 129

The Family Educational Rights and Privacy Act and the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act 129

A Problem-Solving Model for Dealing with Legal and Ethical Issues 130

An Example 130

Areas of Potential Ethical Conflict 133

Ethical Competencies, Confrontations, and Advocacy 134 Summary 135 • Four Scenarios for Additional Practice in Ethical Problem Solving 135 • References 136

Chapter 6 ConsuLting about students with soCiaL, emotionaL, and/or behavioraL ProbLems 137 Learning Outcomes 137

Introduction to Social, Emotional, and Behavioral Problems 137

Behavior Problems: Reasons and Suggested Interventions 139

Family and Community 139

Classroom and Schools 141

Within-Child Reasons for Behavior Problems 143

Individuals with Disabilities Education Improvement Act 145

Autism Spectrum Disorder 146

Emotional Disturbance 148

Traumatic Brain Injury 149

Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity 149

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders 149

IDEA versus the DSM-V 150

IDEA Mandates on Assessment, Intervention, and Discipline of Students with Behavior Problems 151

Contents xiii

Functional Behavioral Assessment and Analysis of Behavior 151

Functional Behavioral Assessment 151

Review of Records 153

Interviews 153

Rating Scales 157

Classroom Observations 158

Applied Behavior Analysis 159

Intervention Evaluation 161

Schoolwide Positive Behavior Support 162

Universal Behavioral Interventions 162

Targeted Behavioral Interventions 165

Intensive Behavior Interventions 168 Summary 169 • References 169

Chapter 7 Consulting about students with aCademiC skill Problems 173 Learning Outcomes 173

Introduction 173

Universal Effective Instruction (Tier 1) 175

Qualities of Effective Instruction 175

Effective Instruction for English Language Learners 177

Effective Instruction for Culturally Diverse and Low Income Students 179

High-Poverty, High-Performing Schools and RtI/MTSS 180

High Expectations and Differentiated Instruction 180

Interventions to Improve Study Skills and Learning Strategies 181

Improving Motivation 182

Targeted Interventions for Academic Problems (Tier 2) 185

Intensive Interventions for Academic Problems (Tier 3) 187

Interventions for Intellectual Disabilities and Language Delays 187

Supporting Students with Health and Sensory Impairments 188

Interventions for Students with ADHD 189

Supporting Students with Mental Health and Behavioral Disturbances 190

Identification and Interventions for Students with Learning Disabilities 191

Data-Based Special Education Eligibility Assessment 192 Summary 195 • References 195

Chapter 8 transition Planning 198 Learning Outcomes 198

Postsecondary Outcomes for Students with Disabilities 198

Legal Mandates 200

Transition Planning with Students and Families 202

Maximizing the Participation of Students and Families 202

The Transition Planning Process 204

Appropriate Transition Assessments 204

xiv Contents

Development of Present Levels of Academic Achievement and Functional Performance 205

Measurable Postsecondary and Annual Goals 205

Transition Services 206

Transition Outcomes 207

Collaborative Consultation with Stakeholders 208

Consultation with School Personnel 208

Consultation with Community Members 208

Collaborative Consultation Transition Planning in Action 209 Summary 211 • References 211

chapter 9 systems-level coNsultAtioN: the orgANizAtioN As the tArget of chANge 214 Learning Outcomes 214

Why Systems-Level Consultation? 215

Macrosystemic Influences on School Innovation 215

Common Core State Standards 216

Statewide Technical Assistance 217

High-Poverty, High-Performing Schools 218

Value-Added Models of Evaluating Teacher Performance 220

Microsystemic Influences on School Innovation 221

School Characteristics 221

Leadership Characteristics 223

Who Initiates Systems Change, and Where Does It Come From? 224

Implementation Teams 224

Professional Development 225

Professional Development and Technology 226

Coaching and Mentoring 226

Data-Team Discussions 228

Professional Development to Promote and Sustain an MTSS 228

System-Change Phases: The MTSS Example 229

Determining a Need and Creating Readiness 229

Determining a Long-Term Vision and Desired Alternative Practices 230

Installation and Initial Implementation 232

Institutionalization 233

Ongoing Evolution 233 Summary 234 • References 234

chapter 10 cAse studies iN collABorAtive coNsultAtioN 236 Learning Outcomes 236

Introduction to the Cases 236

Case One: Academic Difficulties for Maria 237 Case Two: System Change and Inclusion of Student (Don) with Autism Spectrum Disorder 242

References 249

Index 251

Contents xv

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Overview of School-Based Consultation

Chapter 1

You are the newly appointed resource specialist (or school psychologist or counselor) at Whittier School, a K–6 school in the Bellflower school district. Your job includes being a consultant to teachers, parents, and others about student learning and behavior/adjustment problems. Ms. Jones, an experienced third-grade teacher, stops you in the hallway one day in early October and says, “You’ve got to do something about Johnny B. He really needs a lot of help.” How would you proceed?

Ms. Nguyen, principal of Martin Luther King Jr. High School, wants you to explain your role as a consultant to the teachers. Consider what you may include in a 5-minute presentation at the next teacher staff meeting regarding the purpose of school-based consultation.

Learning Outcomes

1.1 Define the terms consultation and collaboration.

1.2 Summarize multiple characteristics of collaborative consultation.

1.3 Recognize the unique individual roles and interactions that the consultant, consultee, and student contribute to the collaborative consultation paradigm, as well as the fluidity of the consultant/ consultee roles in schools.

1.4 Explain the need for process expertise and content expertise in the role of an effective consultant.

1.5 Distinguish among primary, secondary, and tertiary levels of intervention.

1.6 Summarize the major historical trends in education as they pertain to school-based consultation.

1.7 Describe some of the major research issues related to consultation practices.

How you proceed is a function of many variables, such as your personal philosophy of pro- fessional practice; the expectations of your supervisors and coworkers; and factors such as caseload, established precedents, your reinforcement history, and your training. We believe that a consultation-based service delivery model is, for most referrals and most constituents (that is, teachers, parents, and other consultees), an appropriate and useful approach when used with other service requirements of your position as a special education teacher, school psychologist, or school counselor.

Consultation and Collaboration: definitions, distinCtions, and CharaCteristiCs

Researchers in the field of consultation have worked to refine the definitions of collaborative consultation from the perspectives of the public schools. The definition that best reflects the focus of this text is the following: Collaborative consultation is a process in which a trained, school-based consultant, working in an egalitarian, nonhierarchical relationship with a con- sultee or as a member of a team, assists that person or team in her or their efforts to make decisions and carry out plans that will be in the best educational interests of her or their stu- dents. All the concepts in this definition are found among the definitions listed in Figure 1.1.

2 Chapter 1 • Overview of School-Based Consultation

Collaborative Consultation as an indireCt serviCe

The initial purpose of the school-based consultation is to provide improved service to a third party, the student. Through the consultation process, however, the consultee’s competence should be enhanced. Thus, consultation is a form of capacity building (Ysseldyke et al., 2012). In schools, the consultee (typically a teacher) usually does most of the in-classroom or

The terms egalitarian and nonhierarchical are important to this definition because consultees, who are usually teachers or parents, are much more likely to engage in the consultation process when they believe they have at least as much input into the planning process as the consultant (Kelleher, Riley-Tillman, & Power, 2008). This is in contrast to an expert stance, in which the consultant develops an intervention plan based on a referral and the consultee is primarily, if not solely, responsible for carrying out the recommended interventions. We do not mean to suggest that consultants and consultees engaged in collaborative consultation lack expertise. Often the consultant is well versed in consultation strategies and is knowledgeable about assessments and interventions; the consultee is often well-informed about the needs and strengths of the student in question. Through collaboration, a better intervention is developed, implemented, and maintained than if either worked in isolation (i.e., collaboration produces synergism). In schools, the roles of the consultant and consultee are not static. A special education teacher or school psychologists could find him- or herself to be a consultant in one conversation and a consultee in the next. In some cases, such as when graduate students are training to become skilled consultants, the consultant may have little knowledge about academic and behavioral assessments and interventions, but by focusing the discussion on finding solutions and documenting outcomes, the consultee arrives at a better place from which to help his or her student.

Activity 1.1

Speak to several people outside your field of professional interest and ask them what images or expectations come to mind when they hear the word consultant. What percentage of people use the word expert?

How often do they mention the concept of collaboration? Also, ask people in pub- lic schools to define consultation. What is their image of what a consultant does, or should do?

Definitions/descriptions of consultation:

Consultation is a process that “involves professionals collaborating to use information to plan academic or behavioral treatments” (Ysseldyke, Lekwa, Klingbeil, & Cormier, 2012).

Consultation “provides a means for teachers to learn strategies to deal with presenting problems” (Coffee & Kratochwill, 2013, p. 2).

Consultation is a problem-solving process that can be initiated and terminated by either the consultant or consultee . . . for the purpose of assisting consultees to develop attitudes and skills that will enable them to function more effectively with a client, which can be an individual, group, or organization (Brown, Pryzwansky, & Schulte, 2011, p. 1).

Consultation is “procedurally operationalized through a series of well-defined stages (including problem identification, problem analysis, plan development, plan evaluation), wherein consultees develop and implement coherent, coordinated intervention plans across home and school settings” (Sheridan, Swanger-Gagné, Welch, Kwon, & Garbacz, 2009, p. 477).

Definitions/descriptions of collaboration:

“Interpersonal collaboration is a style for direct interaction between at least two coequal parties voluntarily engaged in shared decision making as they work toward a common goal” (Friend & Cook, 2009).

Collaboration is “a reciprocal relationship and training based on using equally the group leaders’ and the teachers’ knowledge, strengths, and perspectives” (Webster-Stratton, Reinke, Herman, & Newcomer, 2011, p. 509).

fiGure 1.1 Definitions and descriptions of the terms consultation and collaboration

Chapter 1 • Overview of School-Based Consultation 3

Activity 1.2

Watch this video and discuss signs that synergism is occurring for Kevin.

on-the-playground implementation, and the parent, as consultee, does most of the at-home implementation. The consultant may be involved in teaching the consultee skills so he or she is able to implement the intervention, or the consultant may collect data on how well the interventions are working or data on whether the interventions were implemented, but ulti- mately the consultee is the primary interventionist. In other words, the consultant provides indirect support to students by enhancing the capacity of the consultee, who provides the direct support. Thus, consultation is generally considered an indirect service. Collaborative teaming, such as general education and special education teachers coteaching a class or a leadership team planning the implementation of schoolwide positive behavior support (SWPBS), will involve both direct and indirect services. Yet the same core characteristics of consultation—egalitarian, data-driven, problem-solving, capacity enhancing, and evidence- based—apply to effective teams.

Collaboration refers to a very specific kind of consultation, one characterized by a recipro- cal relationship that is nonhierarchical. Defined in this way, collaboration may seem very differ- ent from forms of consultation practiced in the business, medical, or military arenas; it is not necessary in collaborative consultation that any one person is the expert. This is true because collaborative consultation takes place between or among two or more people, with the role of expert shifting periodically among the participants. For example, a student study team (SST) meeting might involve the regular education teacher as an expert in curriculum and teaching method; the counselor as an expert in explaining how a student’s approach to tasks stems from family and cultural dynamics; the psychologist or special education teacher as an expert in sug- gesting a contingency reinforcement plan, a memory-enhancing system, or a teaching approach that the teacher might use to increase content retention; the student’s mother as an expert in reviewing how she assists and encourages the student with his academic work; and the student as an expert in his interests, learning strategies, and reinforcers. As these participants collaborate with one another in understanding a problem and designing a program, they are sharing their expertise, with each party contributing a varying amount depending on the nature of the referral. A main goal of collaboration is to establish synergism in which working as a group leads to better student outcomes than if each collaborator worked in isolation.

The philosophy of seeking synergism also extends to plan implementation. Although the primary person carrying out the plan is usually either the general or special education classroom teacher, the other team members contribute their expertise in ways appropriate to their training and experience. In the SST case just described, plan implementation might involve the counse- lor working with the parents on ways to improve homework completion, the psychologist assist- ing the teacher in implementing a token economy to improve classwide compliance, the special education teacher providing a targeted reading intervention, and the student self-monitoring and helping the consultee fine-tune the classroom reinforcement system. This example demon- strates how expertise and mutual assistance are the two major components of a collaborative consultation model.

A third major component of collaborative consultation is problem solving. Consultants are employed for the express purpose of solving the learning and behavior problems exhibited by schoolchildren. Generically, problem solving refers to a structured set of steps or procedures intended to assist the consultee in addressing a student academic or behavioral problem. The problem-solving steps may also be applied to identifying and implementing school improve- ment (see Chapter 8). The problem-solving process may take many forms or styles, depending on the nature of the problem, the philosophical beliefs of both consultant and consultee, the constraints or limitations of the setting, the availability of specific kinds of help, and so on. The steps in problem solving are discussed in detail in Chapter 3.

Figure 1.2 showcases the personal view of the first author (Kampwirth) regarding the collaborative consultation method.

4 Chapter 1 • Overview of School-Based Consultation

fiGure 1.2 Collaborative consultation: Rationale, limitations, and suggestions from the first author

In my way of conducting collaborative consultation, I give a lot of emphasis to the possibility that con- sultees can, and should, be strongly encouraged to think through their own ideas about how to solve the referral problems. This may not seem feasible. After all, if the consultee knew a solution to his referral question, why wouldn’t he just implement it and save time and energy? Also, if the consultee’s referral has been sent to you for your assistance, doesn’t he have a right to expect that you will have, and impart to him, expert knowledge?

My experience has taught me that consultees, both teachers and parents, when faced with relatively difficult problems in learning and/or behavior, sometimes get confused, or stuck, in their thinking. They probably have tried some solutions, and when these haven’t worked, they’ve experienced some level of doubt regarding their usually dependable problem-solving strategies, and they feel as though they don’t know what to do next. Or they have an idea but they just aren’t sure about it, and they would like to discuss their idea with someone else. This someone else becomes their consultant. It is hoped that this person acknowledges the consultee’s experience and expertise by doing at least these two things:

1. Ask the consultee to review what she has done to improve the situation so far, and how these efforts have worked.

2. Encourage the consultee to tell the consultant what she (the consultee) wants to do next. Use questions such as “Given what you’ve told me, and in light of your understanding of the problem at this time, what would you like to try next?” “You’ve tried a number of things so far. What are you thinking of doing tomorrow?” “So far you’ve felt like what you’ve tried just hasn’t been the best solution. What’s next? What do you want to try now?”

I refer to this effort at intervention development by consultees as the ACCEPT method, ACCEPT being an acro- nym that acknowledges the consultant’s philosophy about the consultee’s contributions and that stands for the following behaviors, which, to me, are at the heart of collaborative consultation:

A Acknowledging the consultee’s predominant role in carrying out the planned interventions, usually in his classroom (or home), in the context of that setting, and in his style.

C Commenting positively on the efforts the consultee has made to date in trying to solve the problem, and the effort he is expending now on behalf of the student.

C Convincing the consultee that he has good ideas to offer, and that you, the consultant, would like to hear them.

E Expecting that the consultee will take the lead in the development of ideas if encouraged to do so, and expecting that the consultee will give equal weight to the consultant’s ideas.

P Pointing out possibilities for effective interventions based on the consultee’s ideas. This involves taking his ideas and helping him think through their pros and cons and the details of implementation. In this way, you provide your content expertise in the context of his ideas. When collaborative consultation is working well, the consultant’s role is that of facilitator of the consultee’s ideas.

T Treating the consultee as an equal. One of the hallmarks of a collaborative model is that it brings adults together in an atmosphere of mutual respect. Both are equally expert, both need help from the other, and both give ideas and contribute to the final solutions.

LIMITS TO A COLLABORATIVE CONSULTATION MODEL

This model does not always work as planned. Some consultees seem bereft of ideas, or they appear to be too irritated by the problem to be able to think clearly. Some get in a punishment mode, particularly in regard to serious behavior problems, and they are not able to think positively. Some think only of ways of reacting to a referred student rather than more systemically. Some always prefer to think that someone else (e.g., special education, or a more restrictive setting) should take over the student and solve his problem that way. Others are simply deferential to the consultant; they cannot get over the consultant-as-expert idea. They assume it’s easier to get you to solve the problem, to determine the interventions and their implementa- tion. That way, if it doesn’t work, guess who’s to blame? Last, some are too inexperienced, or at least act that way, and they simply need more direct help.

SUGGESTIONS

Collaborative consultation sometimes seems to break down because the ideas from the consultee are inappro- priate in some way. Some teachers and parents have only a limited number of ideas for intervention. When you sense that this is true, the collaboratively oriented consultant most certainly can suggest interventions. My opinion is that it is best to come up with two or three viable interventions, based on best practice, and to ask the consultee

Chapter 1 • Overview of School-Based Consultation 5

defininG CharaCteristiCs and expeCtations of Collaborative Consultation

The following are expectations about the nature and characteristics of collaborative consultation:

1. The consultant is a trained professional. Consultants can be working in various profes- sions and can include special education teachers, general education teachers, mentor teachers, school counselors, school psychologists, administrators, and nonschool personnel. In addition to their own area of expertise, a consultant is able to engage in a problem-solving process.

2. Establishing a relationship based on mutual respect and trust is essential for successful consultation.

3. The nature of the referral problem directs the problem-solving processes. Chapter 2 lists consultants’ roles and activities; it is common for practitioners to shift among them.

4. The consultant and the consultee both must make a valid effort to engage in the problem-solving process if consultation is to occur. The ultimate power in the consultation process rests with the consultee because she or he is primarily responsible for carrying out the jointly agreed-on interventions. The consultant’s contribution is to provide an objective analy- sis of the referral problem and information useful in intervention design, monitoring, and evaluation. The consultant may use interpersonal strategies to improve the likelihood that the consultee will implement agreed-on interventions.

5. The purpose and the process of consultation interact and must be considered simultane- ously. This is especially true in a collaborative consultation approach in which nonhierarchical, egalitarian positions are occupied by both the consultee and the consultant, who are both involved in idea generation within a problem-solving context.

what she or he thinks of each intervention. Which of the ideas is the consultee attracted to? Which does the consultee seem able and willing to do? The interventions you suggest should meet at least the following criteria:

1. Treatment acceptability: If the consultee doesn’t accept an intervention as something she is willing to do, you either have to be a good salesperson and convince her of its merits through the use of social influence (Erchul & Martens, 2002), or try to modify it. The teacher may agree to try the intervention (possibly under duress), give it a half-hearted try, claim it didn’t work (it probably didn’t), and require you to think of another idea. You never know what interventions meet the criteria of treatment acceptability until you suggest them. What you do know is that, if the intervention is not acceptable to the person who is to implement it, it is not likely that it will ever be implemented as intended.

2. Treatment validity: Is there research support for the idea? Best practices are those that have at least some degree of support, either from the literature or from your own experience or knowledge base.

3. Treatment ethics: The concern here is about the appropriateness of an intervention from the standpoint of the students’ best interests; their dignity as people; probable benefits versus risks; and an orientation toward replacement of, rather than suppression of, challenging behaviors.

4. Treatment integrity (fidelity): Was the treatment implemented correctly? This, of course, won’t be known until the treatment is tried.

5. Treatment effectiveness: Is the treatment working? By what standards? Does it need to be changed? Again, these answers aren’t known until the treatment has been tried for a sufficient amount of time to determine its effectiveness.

It is also important to stick to the referral and not to wander off in other directions. It may be tempting to think that a given consultee needs help in many areas of which he may not be aware. Except in serious cases (abusive behavior toward students; chaotic, dangerous classroom management practices; personal problems that are affecting the classroom), it is best to establish well-defined goals relative to the referral problem, work toward solving them, and let other issues emerge as the consultee feels the necessity of dealing with them. Remember that change is difficult; overwhelming a consultee with your ideas about how to make the classroom or home perfect may be regarded as intrusive and perhaps overwhelming. No one wants assistance from an intrusive person who wants to tell other people what to do. Do a good job helping the consultee with his current concerns and he will get back to you later about other issues, or you can bring them up later.

Last, but nonetheless important, consider the role of family and culture. Interventions that are selected need to be sensitive to the student’s cultural and family background.

fiGure 1.2 (Continued)

6 Chapter 1 • Overview of School-Based Consultation

6. Systemic variables impinge on the consultant, consultee, and student and must be con- sidered as integral parts of the process. School consultants and consultees always operate within a larger set of conditions, including not only legal and ethical mandates but also societal expecta- tions, cultural norms, district and school-level guidelines, and family concerns. The interventions discussed, particularly at group meetings (such as SST, etc.), need to gain at least tacit approval from all constituents.

7. Consultation is governed by certain ethical guidelines that influence consultant roles as well as the process of consultation. Chapter 5 discusses ethical and advocacy issues in consulta- tion. Practical examples demonstrating the influence of these factors appear in the case studies in Chapter 9.

8. There is an emphasis on record review, observation, and interview as assessment meth- ods (rather than published norm-referenced tests of cognition, processing, and achievement).

9. Collaborative consultation seeks solutions, not labels. The goal is to identify the level of support a student needs within the least restrictive environment. While some students may need special education and related services in specialized settings to be successful, most students who manifest learning and/or behavior problems can be successful in general education with targeted interventions and ongoing consultation support. Whenever possible, it is best to solve problems in the context in which they occur.

10. School consultants must be experts in process (the “how” of consultation; see Chapter 3) but not necessarily in all possible content. For example, a newly minted school counselor with little classroom experience may still be able to assist an experienced teacher with a concern about a student. The school counselor can share her classroom observations, point out patterns in the student’s record, and engage the teacher in the problem-solving steps (described in Chapter 3); the end result should be better than if the teacher had tried to address the problem on his own. The consultant’s job is to facilitate the thinking of these primary-care providers (i.e., parents and teachers serving as consultees) so these individuals can feel empowered to carry out their ideas about how to best assist the student under the guidance and encouragement of the consultant.

11. Occasionally consultees may bring information into the discussion that is more closely related to their personal lives and problems than to the learning or behavior problems of the referred student. The consultant has to be careful not to confuse the consultative relationship by taking on the role of a counselor to the consultee. Decisions about the relevance of any particular piece of information are not always easy to make, but it is usually best to steer the conversation gently back to the appropriate work-related problem. Of course, if the consultant perceives that the consultee does have a personal problem that should be dealt with, whether it is affecting the referral problem or not, she may refer the consultee to a resource where he can get whatever help is needed. Because it is possible for a consultee to have personal issues that interfere with his ability to view the referral problem objectively, the consultant may need to mention any concerns she has to the consultee in a helpful and positive way (Caplan & Caplan, 1993).

12. The goal of collaborative consultation is to improve the functioning of the student while enhancing the capacity of the consultee. In fact, building capacity so that other children may benefit from better teaching, classroom management, and/or parenting is what makes consulta- tion efficient as well as effective.

Activity 1.3

In small groups, discuss the expectations about the nature and characteristics of collab- orative consultation presented above. Are

these essential characteristics and goals? What others might be added?

Formal consultation, in which a clearly defined consultee approaches an identified consult- ant for assistance in a specified space over a specified amount of time, is the exception rather than the rule. Consultations on the fly or via e-mail may be more common. Jacob, Decker, and Hartshorne, (2011, p. 191) wrote, “the role definition, the process of goal setting during consul- tation, the responsibilities of the consultant and consultee, and the parameters of confidentiality” should be discussed prior to offering consultation services. In our experience, however, school- based consultation is generally more informal, although it is a good idea to review the above

Chapter 1 • Overview of School-Based Consultation 7

Required Interaction

Possibly N o Interaction

Consultant

Consultee Student

C ol

la bo

ra tiv

e In

te ra

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fiGure 1.3 The triadic nature of consultation

expectations with school staff members on an annual basis. The more serious the referral con- cern, the more formal the consultation may become. Student study team (SST), individualized education program (IEP), or transition planning or implementation team meetings are examples of where more formal consultations are likely to occur. It is important for these teams to take time periodically to examine the extent to which they are adhering to the above expectations and problem-solving processes. Busy school personnel are keen to work on and, ideally, solve stu- dent challenges, yet the importance of examining how well the consultation processes is working to determine if it could be more effective cannot be underestimated.

the triadiC nature of Consultation

The most common form of consultation in schools consists of interactions among a consultant, the consultee(s), and a student. As Figure 1.3 shows, the consultant and the consultee interact freely in a nonhierarchical, reciprocal relationship. Because the consultant may or may not have any direct interaction with the student, consultation is usually considered an indirect service. However, school-based consultants typically, at a minimum, observe the student in the classroom or other setting (playground, lunchroom, etc.). Often the consultant offers some type or degree of direct service to the student, such as modeling an instructional technique or collecting interven- tion fidelity and/or effectiveness data.

the role of proCess and Content expertise in Consultation

People generally relate the concept or practice of consultation to activities carried out by skilled businesspeople, engineers, and medical professionals, and the public tends to think of consultation in terms of expertness. In the business world, a consultant may be hired to solve a particularly tricky problem in production, merchandising, or taxation. The hiring firm expects that the consultant will have expertise in the area and will propose a solution that has a good chance of working well. For this level of expert consultation, business executives expect to pay well.

One might expect that successful consultants working in the schools with teachers and parents should also adopt a stance of expertise. We take the position that expertness should be expected in the area of process and that it is highly desirable but not sufficient in the area of content. By process, we mean the interactions that occur between the consultant and the consult- ees through which a behavior or a learning problem is approached and solved; it is concerned with how one acts as a consultant. Content refers to the actual ideas that the consultees will implement, such as a behavioral contract, cooperative learning, phonemic awareness instruction, or a token economy; it represents what people will do as a result of consultation. Collaborative

8 Chapter 1 • Overview of School-Based Consultation

consultation requires expertise in process; without such expertise, the process disintegrates, resistance increases, and consultees become dissatisfied with the consultative approach for deal- ing with their needs and the needs of their students. Consultants’ ability to engage consultees in a productive process may be determined by their interpersonal skills as well as their knowledge of consultation processes. The content consultants are expected to provide includes knowledge of empirically supported intervention. However, the consultee determines what is practical to apply given the context of the referral (Kelleher et al., 2008). As indicated by the definitions, the collaborative approach depends on a degree of mutual expertise in problem solving, resulting in content decisions that are jointly generated and approved by both the consultant and the consultee(s) within a nonhierarchical, reciprocal relationship (Friend & Cook, 2009).

Activity 1.4

Discuss the role of process versus content. Do you think a school consultant needs to have a set of interventions for every problem or issue

a teacher or parent can describe? How might you deal with a consultee who insists on your having answers for every problem?

Consultation at different levels of problem severity

Caplan (1964) described three levels of intervention: primary, secondary, and tertiary. These three levels are also referred to as universal, selective, and indicated (Frank & Kratochwill, 2009); as core, targeted, and intensive (National Association of State Directors of Special Education, 2005); and as Tier 1, Tier 2, and Tier 3 (Sugai & Horner, 2009). A multi-tiered system of support (MTSS) typically incorporates the three levels of interventions, including explicit data-based decision rules for when students need to progress from one level of support to another (Sugai & Horner, 2009). Common MTSSs include response to intervention (RtI) for addressing academic skill deficits and schoolwide positive behavior support (SWPBS) or posi- tive behavioral interventions and supports (PBIS) for addressing behavioral concerns. RtI and SWPBS/PBIS are complementary systems that are implemented, ideally, in concert with each other because behavioral problems often affect achievement, and achievement problems lead to behavioral problems for many students. MTSS is described at length in Chapter 3; however, a quick review of the types of consultation and interventions that may occur at each of the three levels is provided here.

Tier 1, or universal prevention, involves taking action to ensure that students are unlikely to develop learning or behavioral difficulties. Sufficiently sequenced curriculum, effective teaching methods, and explicit classroom rules are all part of universal prevention. Examples of interventions at this level include Success for All (Slavin, Madden, Dolan, & Wasik, 1996), Peer-Assisted Learning (U.S. Department of Education, 2013), and Safe and Civil Schools (Sprick, 2009). Professional learning communities (PLCs) are popular for consulting with teachers on improving their classroom management or teaching methods, grade-level teaming is common for improving universal services at a grade level, and implementation teams are helpful for improving schoolwide functioning. These different types of teams are discussed in greater detail in Chapter 8. Individual consultants may also attempt to improve the general education instruction through coaching or problem-solving consultation. It is not uncommon for a consult- ant who is following up on a student referral to discover that the problem lies not with an indi- vidual student but with the teacher’s poor teaching (i.e., a problem with Tier 1).

Tier 2 or targeted interventions involves actions taken when a student appears to be having difficulties adapting to behavioral or academic expectations. Small homogeneous groupings, parent conferences, in-class modifications, social skills training, and other mild forms of inter- vention are common during this stage. Targeted interventions should involve some type of sup- plemental instruction to teach directly and provide additional practice on the skills the student failed to develop in the primary/universal stage (Gersten et al., 2008). Often the consultation at Tier 2 takes place at a formal SST meeting.

The referral problems are more serious at the Tier 3 or intensive level; major steps need to be taken (e.g., one-on-one or very small group, targeted instruction; reading recovery; special education services; alternative education). Those concerned with the student’s welfare need to

Chapter 1 • Overview of School-Based Consultation 9

consult with each other and develop plans collaboratively that are in the best educational interest of the student. Typically this collaboration occurs with a schoolwide team, such as the section 504 team or an IEP team, which develops individualized, daily, and closely monitored interven- tions. Wraparound services (Eber, Nelson, & Miles, 1997) that involve out-of-school agencies such as community mental health, respite services, and social services are also examples of col- laborative efforts at the tertiary level.

In a school setting, most referrals for consultant assistance are for either Tier 2 or Tier 3 interventions, which is unfortunate. More emphasis on preventive programs, especially for stu- dents who are at risk, has been recommended for decades (Meyers & Nastasi, 1999). However, pressures to deal with current severe problems, combined with inadequate staffing ratios, have slowed the impetus to a prevention-oriented service delivery approach. Bergan (1995) observed that this may be true partly because no specific funding exists for universal prevention services, while funds do exist for placing and supporting students in special education services. Although the 2004 reauthorization of special education law now allows a portion of federal funds for spe- cial education to be used for universal prevention purposes, there is no mandate to do so.

Once plans for any of the three levels have been developed and are being implemented, the role of the collaborative consultant becomes largely one of monitor and evaluator. The teacher or parent consultee will need some assistance in implementing the intervention with integrity and collecting progress monitoring data. Ongoing evaluations of the fidelity and effectiveness of the interventions are necessary to ensure that the desired outcomes are attained.

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Intelligence Theory Pptf homework help

February 2, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Intelligence Theory Pptf homework help

Gateway THEME Measuring intelligence is worthwhile, but tests provide limited definitions of intelligent behavior.

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9781285519517, Introduction to Psychology: Gateways to Mind and Behavior with Concept Maps and Reviews, Thirteenth Edition, Coon/Mitterer – © Cengage Learning. All rights reserved. No distribution allowed without express authorization.

Unlike other species, humans owe their success more to thinking abilities and intelligence than to physical strength or speed. That’s why our species is called Homo sapiens (from the Latin for man and wise). Our intelligence makes us highly adaptable creatures. We live in deserts, jungles, mountains, frenzied cities, placid retreats, and space stations.

Consider Stephen Hawking. He can’t walk or talk. When he was 13, Lou Gehrig’s disease began to slowly destroy nerve cells in his spinal cord, short-circuiting messages between his brain and muscles. Today, he is confined to a wheelchair and “speaks” by manually controlling a speech syn- thesizer. Yet, despite his severe disabilities, his brain is unaffected by the disease and remains fiercely active. He can still think. Stephen is a theoretical physicist and one of the best-known sci- entific minds of modern times. With courage and determination, he has used his intellect to advance our understanding of the universe.

What do we mean when we say that a person like Stephen Hawking is “smart” or “intelligent”? Can intelligence be measured? Can intelligence tests predict life success? What are the conse- quences of having extremely high or low intelligence? These questions and others concerning intelligence have fascinated psychologists for more than 100 years. Let’s see what has been learned and what issues are still debated.

Gateway QUESTIONS 9.1 How do psychologists define intelligence? 9.2 What are typical IQ tests like? 9.3 How do IQ scores relate to sex, age, and

occupation? 9.4 What does IQ tell us about genius?

9.5 What causes intellectual disability? 9.6 How do heredity and environment affect

intelligence? 9.7 Are there alternate views of intelligence? 9.8 Is there a downside to intelligence testing?

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Intelligence

Chapter 9304

Defining Intelligence— Intelligence Is … You Know, It’s …

Gateway Question 9.1: How do psychologists define intelligence? Like many important concepts in psychology, intelligence cannot be observed directly. Nevertheless, we feel certain it exists. Let’s compare two children:

When she was 14 months old, Anne wrote her own name. She taught her- self to read at age 2. At age 5, she astounded her kindergarten teacher by bringing an iPad to class—on which she was reading an encyclopedia. At 10, she breezed through an entire high school algebra course in 12 hours.

Billy, who is 10 years old, can write his name and can count, but he has trouble with simple addition and subtraction problems and finds multipli- cation impossible. He has been held back in school twice and is still incapa- ble of doing the work his 8-year-old classmates find easy.

Anne is considered a genius; Billy, a slow learner. There seems little doubt that they differ in intelligence.

Wait! Anne’s ability is obvious, but how do we know that Billy isn’t just lazy? That’s the same question that Alfred Binet faced in 1904 (Benjafield, 2010; Jarvin & Sternberg, 2003). The French minister of education wanted to find a way to distinguish slower students from the more capable (or the capable but lazy). In a flash of bril- liance, Binet and an associate created a test made up of “intellec- tual” questions and problems. Next, they learned which questions an average child could answer at each age. By giving children the test, they could tell whether a child was performing up to his or her potential (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009; Kaufman, 2000).

Binet’s approach gave rise to modern intelligence tests. At the same time, it launched an ongoing debate. Part of the debate is related to the basic difficulty of defining intelligence (Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005).

Defining Intelligence Isn’t there an accepted definition of intelligence? Traditionally, yes. Intelligence is the global capacity to act purposefully, to think rationally, and to deal effectively with the environment (Wechsler, 1939). The core of intelligence is usually thought to consist of a small set of general mental abilities (called the g-factor) in the areas of reasoning, problem solving, knowledge, memory, and successful adaptation to one’s surroundings (Barber, 2010; Sternberg, 2004).

Intelligence has traditionally been considered a cognitive, not an emotional, capacity. Is there such a thing as emotional intelligence? To find out, see Chapter 10, pages 363–364.

BRIDGES

Beyond this, however, there is much disagreement. In fact, many psychologists simply accept an operational definition of intelligence by spelling out the procedures they use to measure it (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2010). Thus, by selecting items for an intel- ligence test, a psychologist is saying in a very direct way, “This is

what I mean by intelligence.” A test that measures memory, reason- ing, and verbal fluency offers a very different definition of intelli- gence than one that measures strength of grip, shoe size, length of the nose, or the person’s best Guitar Hero score (Goldstein, 2011).

Aptitudes As a child, Hedda displayed an aptitude for art. Today, Hedda is a successful graphic artist. How does an aptitude like Hedda’s differ from general intelligence? An aptitude is a capacity for learning certain abilities. Persons with mechanical, artistic, or musical apti- tudes are likely to do well in careers involving mechanics, art, or music, respectively (• Figure 9.1).

Are there tests for aptitudes? How are they different from intelli- gence tests? Aptitude tests measure a narrower range of abilities than do intelligence tests (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009). For example, special aptitude tests predict whether you will succeed in a single

RANGE OF ABILITIES

Multiple aptitude tests

Special aptitude tests

Intelligence tests

Modern intelligence tests are widely used to measure cognitive abilities. When properly administered, such tests provide an operational definition of intelligence.

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• Figure 9.1 Special aptitude tests measure a person’s potential for achieve- ment in a limited area of ability, such as manual dexterity. Multiple aptitude tests measure potentials in broader areas, such as college work, law, or medicine. Intelli- gence tests measure a very wide array of aptitudes and mental abilities.

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Intelligence 305

Intelligence An overall capacity to think rationally, act purposefully, and deal effectively with the environment.

g-factor A general ability factor proposed to underly intelligence; the core of general intellectual ability that involves reasoning, problem-solving ability, knowledge, and memory.

Operational definition The operations (actions or procedures) used to measure a concept.

Aptitude A capacity for learning certain abilities. Special aptitude test Test to predict a person’s likelihood of succeeding in

a particular area of work or skill. Multiple aptitude test Test that measures two or more aptitudes. General intelligence test A test that measures a wide variety of mental

abilities. Psychometric test Any scientific measurement of a person’s mental

functions. Reliability The ability of a test to yield the same score, or nearly the same

score, each time it is given to the same person. Validity The ability of a test to measure what it purports to measure. Objective test A test that gives the same score when different people

correct it. Test standardization Establishing standards for administering a test and

interpreting scores. Norm An average score for a designated group of people.

area, such as clerical work or computer programming (• Figure 9.2). Multiple aptitude tests measure two or more types of ability. These tests tend to be more like intelligence tests. The well-known SAT Reasoning Test (SAT), which measures aptitudes for language, math, and reasoning, is a multiple aptitude test. So are the tests required to enter graduate schools of law, medicine, business, and dentistry. The broadest aptitude measures are general intelligence tests, which assess a wide variety of mental abilities (Cohen & Swerdlik, 2005).

Psychologists use a variety of aptitude tests to select people for employment and to advise people about choosing careers. For more information, see Chapter 18, pages 608–611.

BRIDGES

Reliability and Validity Whether it is an intelligence test or aptitude test or, for that matter, any other kind of psychometric test—any measurement of a per- son’s mental functions—there will always be two questions you should ask about the test: “Is it reliable?” and “Is it valid? ”

To what does reliability refer? If you weigh yourself several times in a row, a reliable bathroom scale gives the same weight each time. Likewise, a reliable psychometric test must give approximately the same score each time a person takes it (Kaplan & Saccuzzo, 2009). In other words, the scores should be consistent and highly corre- lated. It is easy to see why unreliable tests have little value. Imagine a medical test for pregnancy or breast cancer, for instance, which gives positive and negative responses for the same woman on the same day.

To check the reliability of a test, we could give it to a large group of people. Then, each person could be tested again a week later to establish test-retest reliability. We also might want to know whether scores on one half of the test items match scores on the other half (split-half reliability). If two versions of a test are avail-

able, we could compare scores on one version to scores on the other (equivalent-forms reliability).

Just because a psychometric test is reliable, however, does not mean that it should be trusted; test validity is also important. To see why this is the case, try creating an IQ test with ten questions only you could possibly answer. Your test would be very reliable. Each time you give the test, everyone scores zero, except you, who scores 100 percent (so you thereby proclaim yourself the only human with any intelligence). Even though we all have days when it seems we are the only smart person left on the planet, it should be obvious this is a silly example. A test must also have validity; it should measure what it claims to measure (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2010). By no stretch of the imagination could a test of intelligence be valid if the person who wrote it is the only one who can pass it.

How is validity established? Validity is usually demonstrated by comparing test scores to actual performance. This is called criterion validity. For example, scores on a test of legal aptitude might be com- pared with grades in law school. If high test scores correlate with high grades, or some other standard (criterion) of success, the test might be valid. Unfortunately, many “free” tests you encounter, such as those found in magazines and on the Internet, have little or no validity.

Objective Testing Let’s return to your “I’m the Smartest Person in the World IQ Test” for a final point. Is your test objective? Actually, it might be. If your IQ test gives the same score when corrected by different people, it is an objective test. However, objectivity is not enough to guaran- tee a fair test. Useful tests must also be standardized (Neukrug & Fawcett, 2010).

Test standardization refers to two things. First, it means that standard procedures are used in giving the test. The instructions, answer forms, amount of time to work, and so forth, are the same for everyone. Second, it means finding the norm, or average score,

1. If the driver turns in the direction shown, which direction will wheel Y turn? A B

2. Which wheel will turn the slowest? Driver X Y

Driver

• Figure 9.2 Sample questions like those found on tests of mechanical apti- tude. (The answers are A and the Driver.)

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Chapter 9306

made by a large group of people like those for whom the test was designed. Without standardization, we couldn’t fairly compare the scores of people taking the test at different times. And without norms, there would be no way to tell whether a score is high, low, or average.

Later in this chapter, we will address the question of whether intelligence tests are valid. For now, let’s take a practical approach and learn about some popular standardized IQ tests.

Testing Intelligence—The IQ and You

Gateway Question 9.2: What are typical IQ tests like? American psychologists quickly saw the value of Alfred Binet’s test. In 1916, Lewis Terman and others at Stanford University revised it for use in North America. After more revisions, the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, Fifth Edition (SB5) continue to be widely used. The original Stanford-Binet assumed that a child’s intellectual abilities improve with each passing year. Today, the Stanford-Binet (or SB5) is still primarily made up of age-ranked questions. Naturally, these questions get a little harder at each age level. The SB5 is appropriate for people from age 2 to 85� years and scores on the test are very reliable (Raid & Tippin, 2009; Roid, 2003).

Five Aspects of Intelligence The SB5 measures five cognitive factors (types of mental abilities) that make up general intelligence. These are fluid reasoning, knowl- edge, quantitative reasoning, visual-spatial processing, and working memory. Each factor is measured with verbal questions (those involving words and numbers), and nonverbal questions (items that use pictures and objects). Let’s see what each factor looks like.

Fluid Reasoning Questions like the following are used to test Fluid Reasoning:

How are an apple, a plum, and a banana different from a beet? An apprentice is to a master as a novice is to an ____________. “I knew my bag was going to be in the last place I looked, so I

looked there first.” What is silly or impossible about that?

Other items ask people to fill in the missing shape in a group of shapes, and to tell a story that explains what’s going on in a series of pictures.

Knowledge The Knowledge factor assesses the person’s knowledge about a wide range of topics.

Why is yeast added to bread dough? What does cryptic mean? What is silly or impossible about this picture? (For example, a

bicycle has square wheels.)

Quantitative Reasoning Test items for Quantitative Reasoning measure a person’s ability to solve problems involving numbers. Here are some samples:

If I have six marbles and you give me another one, how many marbles will I have?

Given the numbers 3, 6, 9, 12, what number would come next? If a shirt is being sold for 50 percent of the normal price, and

the price tag is $60, what is the cost of the shirt?

Visual-Spatial Processing People who have visual-spatial skills are good at putting picture puzzles together and copying geometric shapes (such as triangles, rectangles, and circles). Visual-Spatial Processing questions ask test takers to reproduce patterns of blocks and choose pictures that show how a piece of paper would look if it were folded or cut. Verbal questions can also require visual-spatial abilities:

Suppose that you are going east, then turn right, then turn right again, then turn left. In what direction are you facing now?

Working Memory The Working Memory part of the SB5 measures the ability to use short-term memory. Some typical memory tasks include the following:

Correctly remember the order of colored beads on a stick. After hearing several sentences, name the last word from each

sentence. Repeat a series of digits (forward or backward) after hearing

them once. After seeing several objects, point to them in the same order as

they were presented.

If you were to take the SB5, it would yield a score for your general intelligence, verbal intelligence, nonverbal intelligence, and each of the five cognitive factors (Bain & Allin, 2005). For another per- spective on the kinds of tasks used in the SB5, see “Intelligence— How Would a Fool Do It?”

The Wechsler Tests Is the Stanford-Binet the only intelligence test? Many other IQ tests have been developed. Psychologist David Wechsler (1939) designed one widely used alternative. Whereas the original Stanford-Binet was better suited for children and adolescents, the first Wechsler test was specifically designed to test adult intelligence. The current version is the Wechsler Adult Intelli- gence Scale—Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). With newer versions of the Stanford-Binet and a children’s version of the Wechsler scales (currently the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children— Fourth Edition or WISC-IV; see Baron, 2005), both alternatives are now widely used across all ages.

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Intelligence 307

Performance intelligence Intelligence measured by solving puzzles, assembling objects, completing pictures, and other nonverbal tasks.

Verbal intelligence Intelligence measured by answering questions involving vocabulary, general information, arithmetic, and other language- or symbol-oriented tasks.

Individual intelligence test A test of intelligence designed to be given to a single individual by a trained specialist.

Group intelligence test Any intelligence test that can be administered to a group of people with minimal supervision.

Like the Stanford-Binet, the Wechsler tests yield a single overall intelligence score. In addition, these tests also separate scores for performance (nonverbal) intelligence and verbal (language- or symbol-oriented) intelligence. The abilities measured by the Wechsler tests and some sample test items are listed in ■ Table 9.1.

Group Tests The SB5 and the Wechsler tests are individual intelligence tests, which are given to a single person by a trained specialist. In con- trast, group intelligence tests can be given to a large group of people with minimal supervision. Group tests usually require people to read, to follow instructions, and to solve problems of logic, reasoning, mathematics, or spatial skills. The first group intelligence test was the Army Alpha, developed for World War I military inductees. As you can see in ■ Table 9.2, intelligence test- ing has come a long way since then.

Scholastic Aptitude Tests If you’re wondering if you have ever taken an intelligence test, the answer is probably yes. As mentioned earlier, the SAT Reasoning Test is a multiple aptitude test. So are the American College Test (ACT) and the College Qualification Test (CQT). Each of these group tests is designed to predict your chances for success in col-

Adapted from Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

Sample Items Similar to Those Used on the WAIS-IV

Verbal Comprehension Sample Items or Descriptions

Similarities In what way are a wolf and a coyote alike?

In what way are a screwdriver and a chisel alike?

Vocabulary The test consists of asking, “What is a ____________?” or “What does ____________ mean?” The words range from more to less familiar and difficult.

Information How many wings does a butterfly have?

Who wrote Romeo and Juliet?

Perceptual Reasoning

Block Design Copy designs with blocks (as shown at right).

Matrix Reasoning Select the item that completes the matrix.

Visual Puzzles Choose the pieces which go together to form a figure.

Working Memory

Digit Span Repeat from memory a series of digits, such as 8 5 7 0 1 3 6 2, after hearing it once.

Arithmetic Four girls divided 28 jellybeans equally among themselves. How many jellybeans did each girl receive?

If 3 peaches take 2 minutes to find and pick, how long will it take to find and pick a dozen peaches?

Processing Speed

Symbol Search Match symbols appearing in separate groups.

Symbol Search

Coding Fill in the symbols: 3 21244 1 31 2 3 4

X III I 0

■ TABLE 9.1

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Intelligence—How Would a Fool Do It?Human Diversity

You have been asked to sort some objects into categories. Wouldn’t it be smart to put the clothes, containers, implements, and foods in separate piles? Not necessarily. When members of the Kpelle culture in Libe- ria were asked to sort objects, they grouped them together by function. For example, a potato (food) would be placed together with a knife (implement). When the Kpelle were asked why they grouped the objects this way, they often said that was how a wise man would do it. The researchers finally asked the Kpelle, “How would a fool do it?” Only then did the Kpelle sort the objects into the nice, neat categories that we Westerners prefer.

This anecdote, related by cultural psy- chologist Patricia Greenfield (1997), raises serious questions about general definitions of intelligence. For example, among the Cree of northern Canada, “smart” people are the ones who have the skills needed to find food on the frozen tundra (Darou, 1992). For the Puluwat people in the South Pacific, smart means having ocean-going naviga- tion skills necessary to get from island to is- land (Sternberg, 2004). And so it goes, as each culture teaches its children the kinds of “intelligence” valued in that culture— how the wise man would do it, not the fool (Barber, 2010; Correa-Chávez, Rogoff, & Arauz, 2005).

How important do you think the mental abilities assessed in modern intelligence tests are to this Bushman hunter in Africa’s Kalahari Desert?

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Items from the Army Alpha Subtest on “Common Sense”

The Army Alpha was given to World War I army recruits in the United States as a way to identify potential officers. In these sample questions, note the curious mixture of folk wisdom, scientific information, and moralism (Kessen & Cahan, 1986). Other parts of the test were more like modern intelligence tests.

1. If plants are dying for lack of rain, you should

h water them

h ask a florist’s advice

h put fertilizer around them

2. If the grocer should give you too much money in making change, what is the right thing to do?

h buy some candy for him with it

h give it to the first poor man you meet

h tell him of his mistake

3. If you saw a train approaching a broken track you should

h telephone for an ambulance

h signal the engineer to stop the train

h look for a piece of rail to fit in

4. Some men lose their breath on high mountains because

h the wind blows their breath away

h the air is too rare

h it is always cold there

5. We see no stars at noon because

h they have moved to the other side of the earth

h they are much fainter than the sun

h they are hidden behind the sky

■ TABLE 9.2

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Mental age The average mental ability displayed by people of a given age. Chronological age A person’s age in years. Intelligence quotient (IQ) An index of intelligence defined as mental age

divided by chronological age and multiplied by 100. Deviation IQ An IQ obtained statistically from a person’s relative standing

in his or her age group; that is, how far above or below average the person’s score was relative to other scores.

lege. Because the tests measure general knowledge and a variety of mental aptitudes, each can also be used to estimate intelligence.

Intelligence Quotients What is an “IQ”? Imagine that a child named Yuan can answer intelligence test questions that an average 7-year-old can answer. We could say that 7 is her mental age (average intellectual perfor- mance). How smart is Yuan? Actually, we can’t say yet, because we don’t know how old Yuan is. If she is 10, she’s not very smart. If she’s 5, she is very bright. Thus, although mental age is a good measure of actual ability, it says nothing about whether overall intelligence is high or low, compared with other people of the same age.

Thus, to estimate a child’s intelligence, we also need to know her chronological age (age in years). Then, we can relate mental age to chronological age. This yields an IQ, or intelligence quotient. A quotient results from dividing one number into another. When the Stanford-Binet was first used, IQ was defined as mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA) and multiplied by 100. (Multi- plying by 100 changes the IQ into a whole number rather than a decimal.)

MA CA

� 100 � IQ

An advantage of the original IQ was that intelligence could be compared among children with different chronological and mental ages. For instance, 10-year-old Justin has a mental age of 12. Thus, his IQ is 120:

1MA2 12 1CA2 10

� 100 � 120 (IQ)

Justin’s friend Suke also has a mental age of 12. However, Suke’s chronological age is 12, so his IQ is 100:

1MA2 12 1CA2 12

� 100 � 100 (IQ)

The IQ shows that 10-year-old Justin is brighter than his 12-year- old friend Suke, even though their intellectual skills are about the same. Notice that a person’s IQ will be 100 when mental age equals chronological age. Therefore, an IQ score of 100 is defined as aver- age intelligence.

Then does a person with an IQ score below 100 have below average intelligence? Not unless the IQ is well below 100. Average intelli- gence is usually defined as any score from 90 to 109. The impor- tant point is that IQ scores will be over 100 when mental age is higher than age in years. IQ scores below 100 occur when a per- son’s age in years exceeds his or her mental age. An example of this situation would be a 15-year-old with an MA of 12:

12 15

� 100 � 80 (IQ)

Deviation IQs Although the preceding examples may give you insight into IQ scores, it’s no longer necessary to directly calculate IQs. Instead, modern tests use deviation IQs. Tables supplied with the test are used to convert a person’s relative standing in the group to an IQ score. That is, they tell how far above or below average the person’s score falls. For example, if you score at the 50th percentile, half the people your age who take the test score higher than you and half score lower. In this case, your IQ score is 100. If you score at the 84th percentile, your IQ score is 115. If you score at the 97th per- centile, your IQ score is 130. (For more information, see the Statis- tics appendix near the end of this book.)

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OK, so how does Stephen Hawking score? When Hawking was once asked about his IQ, he claimed he didn’t know and joked, “People who boast about their IQ are losers.”

The Stability of IQ How old do children have to be before their IQ scores become stable? IQ scores are not very dependable until about age 6 (Schuerger & Witt, 1989). IQ scores measured at age 3 correlate poorly with those measured at age 27. In other words, knowing a child’s IQ at age 3 tells us very little about what his or her IQ will be 24 years later. (Recall that a perfect correlation is 1.00 and a correlation of 0.00 occurs when scores are unrelated.) However, IQs do become more reliable as children grow older. Knowing a child’s IQ at age 11 is a good predictor of his or her IQ later in life (Gow et al., 2010). After middle childhood, a person’s IQ scores usually change very little from year to year (Canivez & Watkins, 1998; Gow et al., 2010; Larsen, Hartmann, & Nyborg, 2008). (See • Figure 9.3).

Variations in Intelligence— The Numbers Game

Gateway Question 9.3: How do IQ scores relate to sex, age, and occupation? IQ scores are classified as shown in ■ Table 9.3. A look at the per- centages reveals a definite pattern. The distribution (or scattering) of IQ scores approximates a normal (bell-shaped) curve. That is, most

15 27 39 51

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0.9

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• Figure 9.3 The stability or reliability of IQ scores increases rapidly in early childhood. Scores are very consistent from early adulthood to late middle age. (Adapted from Gow et al., 2010; Larsen, Hart- mann, & Nyborg, 2008; Schuerger & Witt, 1989.)

Distribution of Adult IQ Scores on the WAIS-IV

IQ Description Percent

Above 130 Very superior 2.2

120–129 Superior 6.7

110–119 Bright normal 16.1

90–109 Average 50.0

80–89 Dull normal 16.1

70–79 Borderline 6.7

Below 70 Intellectually disabled 2.2

■ TABLE 9.3

Derived from Wechsler, D. (2008). Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale, Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). San Antonio, TX: Pearson.

Knowledge Builder Intelligence Tests

RECITE 1. The first successful intelligence test was developed by

__________________________________. 2. If we define intelligence by the obtained score on a written test, we

are using a. a circular definition b. an abstract definition c. an operational

definition d. a chronological definition 3. Place an “R” or a “V” after each operation to indicate whether it would

be used to establish the reliability (R) or the validity (V) of a test. a. Compare score on one half of test items to score on the other

half. ( ) b. Compare scores on test to grades, performance ratings, or other

measures. ( ) c. Compare scores from the test after administering it on two sepa-

rate occasions. ( ) d. Compare scores on alternate forms of the test. ( )

4. Establishing norms and uniform procedures for administering a test are elements of standardization. T or F?

5. The WAIS-IV is a group intelligence test. T or F? 6. IQ was originally defined as __________________ times 100. 7. Scores on modern intelligence tests are based on one’s deviation

IQ (relative standing among test takers) rather than on the ratio between mental age and chronological age. T or F?

REFLECT Think Critically

8. How well do you think a member of Kpelle culture in Liberia would score on the SB5?

Self-Reflect

If you were going to write an intelligence test, what kinds of questions would you ask? How much would your questions resemble those on standard intelligence tests? Would you want to measure any mental skills not covered by established tests?

Answers: 1. Alfred Binet 2. c 3. a. (R), b. (V), c. (R), d. (R) 4. T 5. F 6. MA/CA 7. T 8. You are right if you suspect the answer is most likely “poorly.” The more important question is what this means. Is the person “slow” or might there be some question about the test itself (Gardner, 2008; Hen- rich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010)? Stay tuned for more on this important issue.

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Intelligence 311

Normal curve A bell-shaped curve characterized by a large number of scores in a middle area, tapering to very few extremely high and low scores.

Fluid intelligence The ability to solve novel problems involving perceptual speed or rapid insight.

Crystallized intelligence The ability to solve problems using already acquired knowledge.

scores fall close to the average and very few are found at the extremes. • Figure 9.4 shows this characteristic of measured intelligence.

IQ and Sex On average, do males and females differ in intelligence? IQ scores cannot answer this question because test items were selected to be equally difficult for both sexes. However, whereas males and females do not appear to differ in overall intelligence, general intel- ligence tests allow us to compare the intellectual strengths and weaknesses of men and women (Hyde, 2007). For decades, women, as a group, performed best on items that require verbal ability, vocabulary, and rote learning. Men, in contrast, were best at items that require spatial visualization and math (Clements et al., 2006; Calvin et al., 2010). Today, such male-female differences have almost disappeared among children and young adults. The small differences that remain appear to be based on a tendency for par- ents and educators to encourage males, more than females, to learn math and spatial skills (Ceci & Williams, 2010).

IQ and Age How much are IQs affected by age? Don’t be confused by • Figure 9.3. The rising curve in that figure indicates that the consistency of IQ scores from year to year increases with age. Actual IQ test scores stay relatively stable as people age with a small, gradual increase until about age 40 and a small slow decline therafter (Larsen, Hart- mann, & Nyborg, 2008; Thompson & Oehlert, 2010).

This trend, of course, is an average. Actual IQs reflect a person’s education, maturity, and experience, as well as innate intelligence. Some people make fairly large gains in IQ, whereas others have siz- able losses. How do the two groups differ? In general, those who gain in IQ are exposed to intellectual stimulation during early adulthood. Those who decline typically suffer from chronic ill- nesses, drinking problems, or unstimulating lifestyles (Honzik, 1984; Nisbett, 2009a,b).

After middle age, the picture gets a bit more complex. Intellec- tual skills involved in fluid intelligence—solving novel problems

involving perceptual speed or rapid insight—decline rapidly after middle age (Brody, 1992; Lawrence, Myerson, & Hale, 1998). By way of compensation, crystallized intelligence—solving prob- lems using already acquired knowledge —can actually increase or, at least, decline very little until advanced age. In other words, younger people are generally “quick learners” (fluid intelligence) but tend to be “wet behind the ears” (lack experience or crystalized intelligence). Older people might be a little “slower on the uptake” but tend to “know the ropes.” Since IQ tests such as the SB5 and WAIS test for components of both fluid intelligence and crystal- lized intelligence, overall, age-related losses are small for most healthy, well-educated individuals (Rindermann, Flores-Mendoza, & Mansur-Alves, 2010; Weintraub 2003).

IQ and Achievement How do IQ scores relate to success in school, jobs, and other endeav- ors? IQ differences of a few points tell us little about a person. But if we look at a broader ranges of scores, the differences do become meaningful. For example, a person with an IQ of 100 would probably struggle with college, whereas one with an IQ of 120 would do just fine.

The correlation between IQ and school grades is at least .50—a sizable association (Calvin et al., 2010; Mayes et al., 2009). If grades depended solely on IQ, the connection would be even stronger. However, motivation, special talents, off- campus educational opportunities, and many other factors influ- ence grades and school success. The same is true of “real world” success beyond school (Strenze, 2007). IQ is also not a good predictor of success in art, music, writing, dramatics, science, and leadership. Tests of creativity are much more strongly related to achievement in these areas (Kaufman, 2009; Preckel, Holling, & Wiese, 2006).

As you might expect, IQ is also related to job status. Persons holding white-collar, professional positions average higher IQs than those in blue-collar settings. For example, accountants, lawyers, and engineers average about 125 in IQ. In contrast, miners and farm workers average about 90 (Brody, 1992). It is important to note, however, that a range of IQ scores can be found in all occupations. Many people of high intelligence, because of choice or circumstance, have “low-ranking” jobs.

Does the link between IQ and occupation show that professional jobs require more intelligence? Not as clearly as you might think. Higher status jobs often require an academic degree. As a result, hiring for professional jobs is biased in favor of a particular type of intelligence, namely, the kind measured by intelligence tests

Pe rc

en t

Intellectually disabled

Borderline

40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180

Mean = 101.8 IQ

Dull normal

Average

Bright normal

Superior

Very superior

• Figure 9.4 Distribution of Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test scores for 3184 children. (Adapted from Terman & Merrill, 1937/1960.)

Chapter 9312

(McClelland, 1994; Neisser et al., 1996). This bias probably inflates the apparent association between professional jobs and IQ. The more IQ-like tests are used to select people for jobs, the stronger the association between IQ and job status. In fact, it can be argued that high status groups use such tests to protect their “territory” (Tittle & Rotolo, 2000).

When IQs are extreme—below 70 or above 140—their link to an individual’s potential for success becomes unmistakable. Only about 3 percent of the population falls in these ranges. Nevertheless, millions of people have exceptionally high or low IQs. Discussions of the intellectually gifted and intellectually disabled follow.

The Intellectually Gifted—Smart, Smarter, Smartest

Gateway Question 9.4: What does IQ tell us about genius? How high is the IQ of a genius? Only 2 people out of 100 score above 130 on IQ tests. These bright individuals are usually described as “gifted.” Less than one-half of one percent of the population scores above 140. These people are certainly gifted or perhaps even “geniuses.” However, some psychologists reserve the term genius for people with even higher IQs or those who are exceptionally creative (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011).

Gifted Children Do high IQ scores in childhood predict later ability? To directly answer this question, Lewis Terman selected 1,500 children with IQs of 140 or more. Terman followed this gifted group (the “Ter- mites,” as he called them) into adulthood. By doing so, Terman corrected several popular misconceptions about high intelligence (Dai, 2010; Reis & Renzulli, 2010; Shurkin, 1992).

Misconception: The gifted tend to be peculiar, socially backward people. Fact: On the contrary, Terman’s gifted subjects, and gifted people in

general, are socially skilled and above average in leadership (Feldhusen & Westby, 2003).

Misconception: Early ripe means later rot; the gifted tend to fizzle out as adults.

Fact: This is false. When they were retested as adults, Terman’s subjects again scored in the upper IQ ranges.

Misconception: The very bright are physically inferior “eggheads,” “nerds,” or weaklings.

Fact: As a group, the gifted were above average in height, weight, and physical appearance.

Misconception: Highly intelligent persons are more susceptible to mental illness (“Genius is next to insanity”).

Fact: Terman demonstrated conclusively that the gifted enjoy better than average mental health and a greater resistance to mental illness. In general, the highly gifted tend to be very well adjusted psychologically (Dai, 2010; Garland & Zigler, 1999).

Misconception: Intelligence has little to do with success, especially in practical matters.

Fact: The success of Terman’s subjects was striking. Far more of them than average completed college, earned advanced degrees, and held pro- fessional positions. As a group, the gifted produced dozens of books, thou- sands of scientific articles, and hundreds of short stories and other publications (Shurkin, 1992; Terman & Oden, 1959). As noted earlier, IQ scores are not generally good predictors of real-world success. However, when scores are in the gifted range, the likelihood of outstanding achieve- ment does seem to be higher.

Giftedness and Achievement Were all the Termites superior as adults? No. Remember that high IQ reveals potential. It does not guarantee success. As adults, some of Terman’s gifted subjects committed crimes, were unemployable, or were unhappy misfits. Nor does a lower IQ guarantee failure. Nobel prize-winning physicist Richard Feynman, whom many regard as a genius, had an IQ of 122 (Michalko, 2001).

How did Terman’s more successful Termites differ from the less successful? Most of them had educated parents who valued learning and encouraged them to do the same. In general, successful gifted persons tend to have strong intellectual determination—a desire to know, to excel, and to persevere (Winner, 2003). Gifted or not, most successful persons tend to be persistent and motivated to learn (Reis & Renzulli, 2010). No one is paid to sit around being capable of achievement. What you do is always more important than what you should be able to do. That’s why a child’s talents are most likely to blossom when they are nurtured with support, encouragement, education, and effort (Callahan, 2006).

Identifying Gifted Children How might a parent spot an unusually bright child? Early signs of giftedness are not always purely “intellectual.” Giftedness can be either the possession of a high IQ or of special talents or aptitudes. The following signs may reveal that a child is gifted: a tendency to seek out older children and adults; an early fascination with expla- nations and problem solving; talking in complete sentences as early as 2 or 3 years of age; an unusually good memory; precocious talent in art, music, or number skills; an early interest in books, along with early reading (often by age 3); showing of kindness, understanding, and cooperation toward others (Dai, 2010; Distin, 2006).

Notice that this list goes beyond straight g-factor, or general “academic” intelligence. Children may be gifted in ways other than having a high IQ. In fact, if artistic talent, mechanical aptitude, musical aptitude, athletic potential, and so on are considered, many children have a special “gift” of one kind or another. Limiting giftedness to high IQ can shortchange children with special talents or potentials. This is especially true of ethnic minority children, who may be the victims of subtle biases in standardized intelligence tests. These children, as well as children with physical disabilities, are less likely to be recognized as gifted (Castellano & Frazier, 2011; Ford & Moore, 2006).

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Giftedness Either the possession of a high IQ or special talents or aptitudes.

Intellectual disability (formerly mental retardation) The presence of a developmental disability, a formal IQ score below 70, or a significant impairment of adaptive behavior.

GATE Programs Being exceptionally bright is not without its problems. Usually, parents and teachers must make adjustments to help gifted chil- dren make the most of their talents ( Jolly et al., 2011). The gifted child may become bored in classes designed for average children. This can lead to misbehavior or clashes with teachers who think the gifted child a show-off or smart aleck. Extremely bright chil- dren may also find classmates less stimulating than older children or adults. In recognition of these problems, many schools now provide special Gifted and Talented Education (GATE) classes for gifted children. Such programs combine classroom enrich- ment with fast-paced instruction to satisfy the gifted child’s appetite for intellectual stimulation (Dai, 2010). Since 1988, the federally funded Jacob K. Javits Gifted and Talented Children and Youth Education Act has provided ongoing funds for research into gifted and talented education programs (Reis & Renzulli, 2010).

All children benefit from enriched environments. For a discussion of enrichment and some guidelines for parents, see Chapter 3, pages 87–88.

BRIDGES

In the next section, we will discuss intellectual disability.

Intellectual Disability— A Difference That Makes a Difference

Gateway Question 9.5: What causes intellectual disability? Before you begin, take a few moments to read “Meet the Rain Man,” in which you will find information about a remarkable mixture of brilliance and intellectual disability. And please keep Kim Peek in mind as you read on. There is usually much more to intellectually disabled people than can be shown by the results of IQ testing (Treffert, 2010). It is especially important to realize that intellectu- ally disabled persons have no handicap when feelings are concerned. They are easily hurt by rejection, teasing, or ridicule. Likewise, they respond warmly to love and acceptance. They have a right to self- respect and a place in the community (Montreal Declaration on Intellectual Disabilities, 2004). This is especially important during childhood, when support from others adds greatly to the person’s chances of becoming a well-adjusted member of society.

Levels of Intellectual Disability A person with mental abilities far below average is termed intel- lectually disabled (the former term, mentally retarded, is now regarded by many as offensive). According to the current definition

It is wise to remember that there are many ways in which a child may be gifted. Many schools now offer Gifted and Talented Edu- cation programs for students with a variety of special abilities—not just for those who score well on IQ tests.

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listed in the American Psychiatric Association’s Diagnostic and Sta- tistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV), intellectual disabil- ity begins at an IQ of approximately 70 or below and is classified as shown in ■ Table 9.4 (American Psychiatric Association, 2000). The listed IQ ranges are approximate because IQ scores normally vary a few points. The terms in the right-hand column are listed only to give you a general impression of each IQ range. Currently, a person’s ability to perform adaptive behaviors (basic skills such as dressing, eating, communicating, shopping, and working) also fig- ures into evaluating this disability (American Psychiatric Associa- tion, 2000; Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011).

A new edition of the DSM, the DSM-5, is scheduled for pub- lication in 2012. It is quite likely that the new definitions of levels

of intellectual disability will deemphasize IQ and focus more heavily on impairment of adaptive behaviors (American Psychiat- ric Association, 2010). After all, why label someone with fairly good adaptive skills “severely intellectually disabled” just because his or her IQ falls within a prescribed range? The end result of such labels is, too often, a placing of needless limitations on the educational goals of intellectually disabled persons (Harris, 2010; Kirk et al., 2011).

Are the intellectually disabled usually placed in institutions? No. Total care is usually only necessary for the profoundly disabled (IQ below 25). Many of these individuals live in group homes or with their families. Those who are severely disabled (IQ of 25–40) and moderately disabled (IQ of 40–55) are capable of mastering basic language and self-help skills. Many become self-supporting by working in sheltered workshops (special simplified work environ- ments). The mildly disabled (IQ of 55–70) make up about 85 per- cent of all those affected. This group can benefit from carefully structured education. As adults, these persons, as well as the bor- derline disabled (IQ 70–85), are capable of living alone and they may marry. However, they tend to have difficulties with many of the demands of adult life (Zetlin & Murtaugh, 1990).

Causes of Intellectual Disability What causes intellectual disability? In 30 to 40 percent of cases, no known biological problem can be identified. In many such instances, the degree of disability is mild, in the 50–70 IQ range.

Levels of Intellectual Disability

IQ Range

Degree of Intellectual Disability

Educational Classification

Required Level of Support

50–55 to 70 Mild Educable Intermittent

35–40 to 50–55 Moderate Trainable Limited

20–25 to 35–40 Severe Dependent Extensive

Below 20–25 Profound Life support Pervasive

■ TABLE 9.4

(Adapted from American Psychiatric Association, 2000.)

Meet the Rain ManThe Clinical File

Meet Kim Peek, the model for Dustin Hoff- man’s character in the Academy Award– winning movie Rain Man (Peek & Hanson, 2007). Kim began memorizing books at 18 months of age. By the time of his death in 2009, he could recite from memory more than 9,000 books. He knew all the ZIP codes and area codes in the United States and could give accurate travel directions be- tween any two major U.S. cities. He could also discuss hundreds of pieces of classical music in detail and could play most of it quite well. Amazingly, though, for someone with such skills, Kim had difficulty with ab- stract thinking and tests of general intelli- gence. He was poorly coordinated and couldn’t button his own clothes (Treffert, 2010; Treffert & Christensen, 2005).

Kim Peek had savant syndrome, in which a person of limited intelligence shows exceptional mental ability in one or more narrow areas, such as mental arithmetic, cal-

endar calculations, art, or music (Crane et al., 2010; Young, 2005).

Do savants have special mental powers not shared by most people? According to one the- ory, many savants have suffered some form of damage to their left hemispheres, freeing them from the “distractions” of language, concepts, and higher-level thought. This al- lows them to focus with crystal clarity on music, drawing, prime numbers, license plates, TV commercials, and other specific in- formation (Young, 2005). Another theory holds that the performances of many sa- vants result from intense practice (Miller, 1999). Perhaps each of us harbors embers of mental brilliance that intense practice could fan into full flame (Snyder et al., 2006; Tref- fert, 2010).

Although savant syndrome hasn’t been fully explained, it does show that extraordi- nary abilities can exist apart from general intelligence.

Once, four months after reading a novel, Kim was asked about a character. He immediately named the character, gave the page number on which a description appeared, and accurately recited several paragraphs about the character (Treffert & Christensen, 2005).

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Savant syndrome The possession of exceptional mental ability in one or more narrow areas, such as mental arithmetic, calendar calculations, art, or music by a person of limited general intelligence.

Familial intellectual disability Mild intellectual disability associated with homes that are intellectually, nutritionally, and emotionally impoverished.

Down Syndrome A genetic disorder caused by the presence of an extra chromosome; results in intellectual disability.

Fragile X syndrome A genetic form of intellectual disability caused by a defect in the X chromosome.X

Often, other family members are also mildly disabled. Familial intellectual disability, as this is called, occurs mostly in very poor households, in which nutrition, intellectual stimulation, medical care, and emotional support may be inadequate. This suggests that familial intellectual disability is based largely on an impoverished environment. Thus, better nutrition, education, and early childhood enrichment programs could prevent many cases of intellectual disability (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Shan- non, 2006).

About half of all cases of intellectual disability are organic, or related to physical disorders (Das, 2000). These include birth injuries (such as lack of oxygen during delivery), and fetal damage (prenatal damage from disease, infection, or drugs). Metabolic disorders, which affect energy production and use in the body, also cause intellectual disability. Some forms of intel- lectual disability are linked to genetic abnormalities, such as missing genes, extra genes, or defective genes. Malnutrition and exposure to lead, PCBs, and other toxins early in childhood can also cause organic intellectual disability (Beirne-Smith, Patton, & Shannon, 2006). Let’s briefly look at several distinctive problems.

Down Syndrome In 1 out of 800 babies, the disorder known as Down syndrome causes moderate to severe intellectual disability and a shortened life expectancy of around 49 years. It is now known that Down syndrome children have an extra 21st chromosome. This condi- tion, which is called trisomy-21, results from flaws in the par- ents’ egg or sperm cells. Thus, although Down syndrome is genetic, it is not usually hereditary (it doesn’t “run in the family”).

The age of parents is a major factor in Down syndrome. As people age, their reproductive cells are more prone to errors dur- ing cell division. This raises the odds that an extra chromosome will be present. As you can see in the following figures, the older a

woman is, the greater the risk (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2010):

Mother’s age Incidence of Down syndrome Under 30 1/11000 Early 40s 1/105 Late 40s 1/12

Fathers, and possibly especially older fathers, also add to the risk; in a small percentage of cases, the father is the source of the extra chromosome (National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, 2010). Older adults who plan to have children should carefully consider the odds shown here.

There is no “cure” for Down syndrome. However, these chil- dren are usually loving and responsive, and they make progress in a caring environment. At a basic level, Down syndrome children can do most of the things that other children can, only slower. The best hope for Down syndrome children, therefore, lies in specially tai- lored educational programs that enable them to lead fuller lives.

Fragile X Syndrome The second most common form of genetic intellectual disability (after Down syndrome) is fragile X syndrome (Hallahan, Kauff- man, & Pullen, 2011). Unlike Down syndrome, fragile X syn- drome is hereditary—it does run in families. The problem is related to a thin, frail-looking area on the X (female) chromosome. Because fragile X is sex linked (like color-blindness), boys are most often affected, at a rate of about 1 out of every 3800 (National Fragile X Foundation, 2011).

Fragile X males generally have long, thin faces and big ears. Physically, they are usually larger than average during childhood, but smaller than average after adolescence. Up to three-fourths of all fragile X males suffer from hyperactivity and attention disor- ders. Many also have a peculiar tendency to avoid eye contact with others.

Fragile X males are only mildly intellectually disabled during early childhood, but they are often severely or profoundly intel- lectually disabled as adults. When learning adaptive behaviors, they tend to do better with daily living skills than with language and social skills (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011).

Phenylketonuria (PKU) The problem called phenylketonuria (FEN-ul-KEET-uh-NURE- ee-ah) is a genetic disease. Children who have PKU lack an impor- tant enzyme. This causes phenylpyruvic (FEN-ul-pye-ROO-vik)

This young woman exhibits the classical features of Down syndrome: Distinctive features of this problem are almond-shaped eyes, a slightly protruding tongue, a stocky build, and stubby hands with deeply creased palms.

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acid (a destructive chemical) to collect within their bodies. PKU is also linked to very low levels of dopamine, an important chemical messenger in the brain. If PKU goes untreated, severe intellectual disability typically occurs by age 3.

PKU can be detected in newborn babies by routine medical testing. Affected children are usually placed on a diet low in phe- nylalinine, the substance the child’s body can’t handle. Carefully following this diet will usually prevent intellectual disability (Grosse, 2010). (Phenylalinine is present in many foods. You might be interested to know that it is also found in Aspartame, the artificial sweetener in diet colas.)

Microcephaly The word microcephaly (MY-kro-SEF-ah-lee) means small- headedness. The microcephalic person suffers a rare abnormality in which the skull is extremely small or fails to grow. This forces the brain to develop in a limited space, causing severe intellectual dis- ability (Szabó et al., 2010). Although they are typically institution- alized, microcephalic persons are usually affectionate, well-behaved, and cooperative.

Hydrocephaly Hydrocephaly (HI-dro-SEF-ah-lee: “water on the brain”) is caused by a buildup of cerebrospinal fluid within brain cavities. Pressure from this fluid can damage the brain and enlarge the head. Hydro- cephaly is not uncommon—about 10,000 hydocephalic babies are born each year in the United States and Canada. However, thanks to new medical procedures, most of these infants will lead nearly normal lives. A surgically implanted tube drains fluid from the brain into the abdomen and minimizes brain damage. Although affected children usually score below average on mental tests, severe intellectual disability usually can be prevented (Rourke et al., 2002).

Cretinism Cretinism (KREET-un-iz-um) is another type of intellectual disabil- ity that appears in infancy. It results from an insufficient supply of thyroid hormone. In some parts of the world, cretinism is caused by a lack of iodine in the diet (the thyroid glands require iodine to func- tion normally). Iodized salt has made this source of intellectual dis- ability rare in developed nations. Cretinism causes stunted physical and intellectual growth that cannot be reversed. Fortunately, cretin- ism is easily detected in infancy. Once detected, it can be treated with thyroid hormone replacement, before permanent damage occurs.

Heredity and Environment— Super Rats, Family Trees, and Video Games

Gateway Question 9.6: How do heredity and environment affect intelligence? Is intelligence inherited? This seemingly simple question is loaded with controversy. Some psychologists believe that intelligence is strongly affected by heredity. Others feel that environment is dominant. Let’s examine some evidence for each view.

In a classic study of genetic factors in learning, Tryon (1929) managed to breed separate strains of “maze-bright” and “maze-

Knowledge Builder Variations in Intelligence

RECITE 1. The distribution of IQs approximates a _________________________

(bell-shaped) curve. 2. Differences in the intellectual strengths of men and women have

grown larger in recent years. T or F?

3. The association between IQ and high-status professional jobs proves that such jobs require more intelligence. T or F?

4. Only about 6 percent of the population scores above 140 on IQ tests. T or F?

5. An IQ score below 90 indicates intellectual disability. T or F? 6. Many cases of intellectual disability without known organic causes

appear to be ______________________________. Match: 7. ____ PKU A. Too little thyroid hormone 8. ____ Microcephaly B. Very small brain 9. ____ Hydrocephaly C. 47 chromosomes 10. ____ Cretinism D. Lack of an important enzyme 11. ____ Down syndrome E. Excess of cerebrospinal fluid 12. ____ Fragile X F. Abnormal female chromosome

G. Caused by a lack of oxygen at birth

REFLECT Think Critically

13. Lewis Terman took great interest in the lives of many of the “Ter- mites.” He even went so far as to advise them about what kinds of careers they should pursue. What error of observation did Terman make?

Self-Reflect

If you measure the heights of all the people in your psychology class, most people will be clustered around an average height. Very few will be extremely tall or extremely short. Does this ring a bell? Do you think it’s normal? (It is, of course; most measured human characteristics form a normal curve, just as IQs do.)

Do you think that giftedness should be defined by high IQ or having special talents (or both)? To increase your chances of succeeding in today’s society, would you prefer to be smart or talented (or both)? How about smart, talented, motivated, and lucky!?

As a psychologist you are asked to assess a child’s degree of intellec- tual disability. Will you rely more on IQ or the child’s level of adaptive behavior? Would you be more confident in your judgment if you took both factors into account?

Answers: 1. normal 2. F 3. F 4. F 5. F 6. familial 7. D 8. B 9. E 10. A 11. C 12. F 13. Terman may have unintentionally altered the behavior of the people he was studying. Although Terman’s observations are generally regarded as valid, he did break a basic rule of scientific observation.

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Phenylketonuria A genetic disease that allows phenylpyruvic acid to accumulate in the body.

Microcephaly A disorder in which the head and brain are abnormally small.y Hydrocephaly A buildup of cerebrospinal fluid within brain cavities. Cretinism Stunted growth and intellectual disability caused by an

insufficient supply of thyroid hormone. Eugenics Selective breeding for desirable characteristics. Fraternal twins Twins conceived from two separate eggs. Identical twins Twins who develop from a single egg and have identical

genes.

dull” rats (animals that were extremely “bright” or “stupid” at learning mazes). After several generations of breeding, the slowest “super rat” outperformed the best “dull” rat. This and other studies of eugenics (selective breeding for desirable characteristics) sug- gest that some traits are highly influenced by heredity.

That may be true, but is maze-learning really a measure of intel- ligence? No, it isn’t. Tryon’s study seemed to show that intelligence is inherited, but later researchers found that the “bright” rats were simply more motivated by food and less easily distracted during testing. When they weren’t chasing after rat chow, the “bright” rats were no more intelligent than the supposedly dull rats. Thus, Try- on’s study did demonstrate that behavioral characteristics can be influenced by heredity. However, it was inconclusive concerning intelligence. Because of such problems, animal studies cannot tell us with certainty how heredity and environment affect intelli- gence. Let’s see what human studies reveal.

Hereditary Influences Most people are aware of a moderate similarity in the intelligence between parents and their children, or between brothers and sis- ters. As • Figure 9.5 shows, the closer two people are on a family tree, the more alike their IQs are likely to be.

Does that indicate that intelligence is hereditary? Not necessarily. Brothers, sisters, and parents share similar environments as well as similar genes (Grigorenko, 2005). To separate heredity and envi- ronment, we need to make some selected comparisons.

Twin Studies Notice in • Figure 9.5 that the IQ scores of fraternal twins are more alike than those of ordinary brothers and sisters. Fraternal twins come from two separate eggs fertilized at the same time. They are no more genetically alike than ordinary siblings. Why, then, should the twins’ IQ scores be more similar? The reason is environmental: Parents treat twins more alike than ordinary sib- lings, resulting in a closer match in IQs.

More striking similarities are observed with identical twins, who develop from a single egg and have identical genes. At the top of • Figure 9.5 you can see that identical twins who grow up in the same family have highly correlated IQs. This is what we would expect with identical heredity and very similar environments. Now, let’s consider what happens when identical twins are reared apart. As you can see, the correlation drops, but only from .86 to .72. Psychologists who emphasize genetics believe figures like these show that differences in adult intelligence are roughly 50 percent hereditary ( Jacobs et al., 2008; Neisser et al., 1996).

How do environmentalists interpret the figures? They point out that some separated identical twins differ by as much as 20 IQ points. In every case in which this occurs, there are large educa- tional and environmental differences between the twins. Also, separated twins are almost always placed in homes socially and educationally similar to those of their birth parents. This would tend to inflate apparent genetic effects by making the separated

twins’ IQs more alike. Another frequently overlooked fact is that twins grow up in the same environment before birth (in the womb). If this environmental similarity is taken into account, intelligence would seem to be less than 50 percent hereditary (Devlin, Daniels, & Roeder, 1997; Turkheimer et al., 2003).

Identical twins also tend to have similar personality traits. This suggests that heredity contributes to personality as well as intelligence. For more information, see Chapter 12, pages 425–427.

BRIDGES

Environmental Influences Some evidence for an environmental view of intelligence comes from families having one adopted child and one biological child. As • Figure 9.6 shows, parents contribute genes and environment

Unrelated persons

Parents and children

Siblings

Fraternal twins

Identical twins

Correlation coefficient

.86 .72

.62

.41 .24

.35 .31

.25 0.0

No data available

Reared apart

Reared together

.1 1.0.2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9

• Figure 9.5 Approximate correlations between IQ scores for persons with varying degrees of genetic and environmental similarity. Notice that the correla- tions grow smaller as the degree of genetic similarity declines. Also note that a shared environment increases the correlation in all cases. (Adapted from Bouchard, 1983; Henderson, 1982.)

Environment

Genes

Adopted child

Biological childParent

Parent

• Figure 9.6 Comparison of an adopted child and a biological child reared in the same family. (Adapted from Kamin, 1981.)

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Chapter 9318

to their biological child. With an adopted child they contribute only environment. If intelligence is highly genetic, the IQs of bio- logical children should be more like their parents’ IQs than the IQs of adopted children are. However, studies show that children reared by the same mother resemble her in IQ to the same degree. It doesn’t matter whether they share her genes (Kamin, 1981; Weinberg, 1989).

IQ and Socioeconomic Status How much can environment alter intelligence? It depends on the quality of the environment (Turkheimer et al., 2003). One way to look at environmental effects is to compare children adopted by parents of high or low socioeconomic status (SES). As you might predict, children who grow up in high SES homes develop higher IQs than those reared by lower SES parents. Presumably, the higher SES homes provide an enriched environment, with better nutrition, greater educational opportunities, and other advantages (Capron & Duyme, 1992).

More importantly, children adopted out of low SES environ- ments can experience great relative gains in intelligence. That is, the IQs of low SES children may be more dramatically infuenced by environmental factors than the IQs of high SES children (Hen- rich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010). In one study, striking increases in IQ occurred in 25 children who were moved from an orphanage and were eventually adopted by parents who gave them love, a fam- ily, and a stimulating home environment. Once considered intel- lectually disabled and unadoptable, the children gained an average of 29 IQ points. A second group of initially less intellectually dis- abled children, who stayed in the orphanage, lost an average of 26 IQ points (Skeels, 1966).

A particularly dramatic environmental effect is the fact that 14 nations have shown average IQ gains of from 5 to 25 points during the last 30 years (Dickens & Flynn, 2001; Flynn, 2007).

Referred to as the Flynn effect, after New Zealand psychologist James Flynn, these IQ boosts, averaging 15 points, occurred in far too short a time to be explained by genetics. It is more likely that the gains reflect environmental forces, such as improved education, nutrition, and living in a technologically complex society (Barber, 2010; Johnson, 2005). If you’ve ever tried to play a computer game or set up a wireless network in your home, you’ll understand why people may be getting better at answering IQ test questions (Neis- ser, 1997). The highlight “You Mean Video Games Might Be Good for Me?” explores this idea further.

If environment makes a difference, can intelligence be taught? The traditional answer is “No.” Brief coaching, for instance, has little positive effect on aptitude and intelligence test scores (Brody, 1992). More encouraging results can be found in early childhood education programs, which provide longer-term stimulating intel- lectual experiences for disadvantaged children (Kirk et al., 2011). In one study, children from low-income families were given enriched environments from early infancy through preschool. By age 2, their IQ scores were already higher than those in a control group. More important, they were still 5 points higher 7 years later (Campbell & Ramey, 1994). High-quality enrichment programs such as Head Start can prevent children from falling behind in school (Barnet & Barnet, 1998; Ramey, Ramey, & Lanzi, 2001).

Later schooling can also have an impact on IQ. Stephen Ceci found that people who leave school lose up to 6 points in IQ per year. Dropping out of school in the eighth grade can reduce a per- son’s adult IQ by up to 24 points. Conversely, IQ rises as people spend more time in school (Ceci, 1991). Israeli psychologist Reuven Feuerstein (FOY-er-shtine) and his colleagues have devel- oped a program they call Instrumental Enrichment. Through hundreds of hours of guided problem solving, students learn to avoid the thinking flaws that lower IQ scores (Feuerstein et al., 1986). Feuerstein and others have shown that such training can

You Mean Video Games Might Be Good for Me?Critical Thinking

Even though the Flynn effect suggests that environmental factors influence intelli- gence (Flynn, 2007; Schooler, 1998), we are left with the question “Which factors?” Psy- chologist Steven Johnson (2005) believes that contemporary culture is responsible. Although he agrees that much popular media content is too violent or sexual in nature, he points out that video games, the Internet, and even television are becoming more complex. As a result, they demand ever greater cognitive effort from us. In other words, it is as important to understand how we experience the environment as it is to understand what we experience.

For example, early video games, such as Pong or PacMan, offered simple, repetitive visual experiences. In contrast, today’s best- selling games, such as Call of Duty or The Sims, offer rich, complicated experiences that can take 40 or more hours of intense problem-solving to complete. Furthermore, players must usually figure out the rules by themselves. Instructions for completing popular games, which have been created by fans, are typically much longer than chapters in this textbook. Only a complex and engag- ing game would prompt players to use such instructions, much less write them for others to use (Johnson, 2005).

According to Johnson, other forms of popular culture have also become more complex, including the Internet and com- puter software. Even popular television has become more cognitively demanding. For example, compared with television dramas of the past, modern dramas weave plot lines and characters through an entire sea- son of programs. In the end, popular cul- ture may well be inviting us to read, reflect, and problem-solve more than ever before (Jaeggi et al., 2008). (Before you uncritically embrace video games, read “You Mean Video Games Might Be Bad for Me?” in Chapter 6.)

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Early childhood education program Programs that provide stimulating intellectual experiences, typically for disadvantaged preschoolers.

Reaction time The amount of time a person must look at a stimulus to make a correct judgment about it.

improve thinking abilities and even raise IQs (Feuerstein et al., 2004; Skuy et al., 2002; Tzuriel & Shamir, 2002).

With our growing understanding of how people think and with the tireless aid of computers, it may become common in schools to “teach intelligence.” Most importantly, improved education and training in thinking skills can improve the intellectual abilities of all children, regardless of what their IQ scores are (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011; Hunt, 1995). Even if “teaching intelli- gence” doesn’t raise IQ scores, it can give children the abilities they need to think better and succeed in life (Perkins & Grotzer, 1997).

Summary To sum up, few psychologists seriously believe that heredity is not a major factor in intelligence, and all acknowledge that environment affects it. Estimates of the impact of heredity and environment continue to vary. But ultimately, both camps agree that improving social conditions and education can raise intelligence.

There is probably no limit to how far down intelligence can go in an extremely poor environment. On the other hand, hered- ity does seem to impose upper limits on IQ, even under ideal conditions. It is telling, nevertheless, that gifted children tend to come from homes in which parents spend time with their chil- dren, answer their questions, and encourage intellectual explora- tion (Dai, 2010).

Impoverished and unstimulating environments can severely restrict mental development during early childhood. See Chapter 3, pages 87–88, for more information.

BRIDGES

The fact that intelligence is partly determined by heredity tells us little of any real value. Genes are fixed at birth. Improving the environments in which children learn and grow is the main way in which we can assure that they reach their full potential (Ormrod, 2011; Turkheimer, 1998).

As a final summary, it might help to think of inherited intel- lectual potential as a rubber band that is stretched by outside forces. A long rubber band may be stretched more easily, but a shorter one can be stretched to the same length if enough force is applied. Of course, a superior genetic gift may allow for a higher maximum IQ. In the final analysis, intelligence reflects develop- ment as well as potential, nurture as well as nature (Grigorenko, 2005; Kalat, 2009).

Beyond Psychometric Intelligence—Intelligent Alternatives to “g”

Gateway Question 9.7: Are there alternate views of intelligence? Until now, we have treated intelligence psychometrically, as a qual- ity that can be measured, like height or weight. Other approaches share the goal of understanding intelligence in more detail. Specifi-

cally, let’s have a look at four other approaches to the study of intelligence:

• Some psychologists are investigating the neural basis for intelli- gence. How, they ask, does the nervous system contribute to differences in IQ?

• A second approach views intelligent behavior as an expression of thinking skills. Cognitive psychologists believe that the nervous system is like a fast computer—it’s of little value unless you know how to use it.

• Speaking of computers, would it make sense to understand human intelligence by programming computers? That is one goal of the field of artificial intelligence.

• A fourth trend involves newer, broader definitions of intelli- gence. Many psychologists have begun to question the narrow focus on analytic thinking found in traditional IQ tests.

The Intelligent Nervous System Do more intelligent people have superior nervous systems? It is natural to assume that intelligence, like other human abilities, can be local- ized in the nervous system. But where and how does Steven Hawk- ing’s nervous system allow him to be so intelligent? This is cur- rently a vibrant research field (Banich & Compton, 2011). We can only briefly explore a few threads here.

One possibility is that intelligent people have faster nervous systems. Maybe Steven Hawking’s brain is just faster than the rest of us. To investigate this possibility, researchers measure how fast people process various kinds of information (Bates, 2005). For example, psychologists have looked at people’s reaction time, the time it takes people to respond to a stimulus (see • Figure 9.7). The flurry of brain activity that follows exposure to a stimulus can also be recorded. Such studies attempt to measure a person’s

(a) (b)

• Figure 9.7 Stimuli like those used in reaction time tasks. The participant views stimulus (a) followed almost immediately by (b), ensuring that (a) is only briefly visible. The participant’s task is to press one key if the left-hand segment of (a) is shorter and another if it is longer. Participants with higher IQs are generally faster and more accurate at tasks like this (Bates, 2005; Petrill et al., 2001).

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speed of processing, which is assumed to reflect the brain’s speed and efficiency (Reed, Vernon, & Johnson, 2004; Waiter et al., 2009). In general, people higher in measured IQ perform faster on reaction time tasks like that shown in • Figure 9.7 (McCrory & Cooper, 2005). In addition, brain areas that control higher mental abilities usually become more active during reaction time testing (Deary et al., 2001; Waiter et al., 2009). Such observa- tions suggest that having a quick nervous system is part of what it means to be quick, smart, swift, or brainy.

Which brain areas control higher mental abilities? You may recall from Chapter 2 that the frontal lobes and especially pre- frontal cortex are related to more complex behaviors. Maybe those parts of Steven Hawking’s brain are just bigger than the rest of us.

Although brain imaging studies confirm the role the frontal lobes play in intelligence, there is more to the story. As you can see in • Figure 9.8, even though these brain images reveal that parts of frontal cortex are larger in people with higher IQs, the same is true for other parts of cortex (Haier et al, 2004). Perhaps we shouldn’t be surprised that a function as complex as intelli- gence relies on activity of many different brain areas. Also, noticeable differences between younger (UNM) and older (UCI) participants suggest that the way the brain expresses intelligence changes as we age. Clearly, we do not yet have a complete picture of the relationship between the nervous system and intelligence.

Intelligent Information Processing Much intelligent behavior is an expression of good thinking skills. Cognitive psychologist David Perkins believes that how smart you are depends on three factors:

• Relatively fixed neural intelligence (the speed and efficiency of the nervous system);

• Experiential intelligence (specialized knowledge and skills acquired over time);

• Reflective intelligence (an ability to become aware of one’s own thinking habits).

Little can be done to change neural intelligence. However, by add- ing to personal knowledge and learning to think better, people can become more intelligent (Perkins, 1995; Ritchhart & Perkins, 2005). The effects of Feuerstein’s Instrumental Enrichment pro- gram (described earlier) are a good example of how reflective intel- ligence can be improved.

Many psychologists now believe that to make full use of innate intelligence a person must have good metacognitive skills. Meta means “beyond,” so metacognitive skills go above and beyond ordi- nary thinking. Such skills involve an ability to manage your own thinking and problem solving. Typically this means breaking prob- lems into parts, establishing goals and subgoals, monitoring your progress, and making corrections. Learning metacognitive skills is the surest avenue to becoming more intelligent (Hunt, 1995; Ku & Ho, 2010).

Metacognitive skills are a large part of what it means to be a reflective thinker. See the “Psychology of Studying,” pages 1–8, to remind yourself (You did read it, right?) how to sharpen your metacognitive skills to become a better student.

BRIDGES

Artificial Intelligence Whereas most efforts have focused on measuring intelligence in humans, a small group of psychologists and computer scientists have taken an entirely different approach. Their basic idea is to build machines that display artificial intelligence (AI). This usu- ally refers to creating computer programs capable of doing things that require intelligence when done by people (Russell & Norvig, 2003). As computer scientist Aaron Sloman explains it, “Human brains don’t work by magic, so whatever it is they do should be

UNM Gray Matter UCI Gray Matter UNM White Matter UCI White Matter

• Figure 9.8 MRI identification of cortical areas whose size is correlated with IQ. The left hemisphere is shown in the top row; the right is on the bottom. Participants were drawn from two universities, a younger group from the University of New Mexico (UNM) and an older group from the University of California at Irvine (UCI). Brain areas pictured in red and yellow are larger in people with higher IQs. (From Haier et al., 2004).

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Speed of processing The speed with which a person can mentally process information.

Neural intelligence The innate speed and efficiency of a person’s brain and nervous system.

Experiential intelligence Specialized knowledge and skills acquired through learning and experience.

Reflective intelligence An ability to become aware of one’s own thinking habits.

Metacognitive skills An ability to manage one’s own thinking and problem solving efforts.

Artificial intelligence (AI) Refers to both the creation of computer programs capable of doing things that require intelligence when done by people, and to the resulting programs themselves.

doable by machine” (Brooks, 2009). The resulting programs can then help us understand how people do those same things.

Consider, for example, IBM’s “Watson” supercomputer, which outperforms even expert humans at playing the television game Jeopardy (Markoff, 2011). Similarly, Aaron Sloman’s robot, the “Cubinator,” does a spiffy job of solving Rubik’s Cube puzzles. Slo- man hopes the Cubinator’s expertise will help him better under- stand how humans do mathematics (Sloman, 2008).

How smart are computers and robots? Don’t worry, they are not very smart yet. Let’s say you are exchanging instant messages with someone you don’t know. You are allowed to make any comments and ask any questions you like, for as long as you like. In reality, the “person” you are communicating with is a computer. Do you think a computer could fool you into believing it was human? If it did, wouldn’t that qualify it as “intelligent”? You may be surprised to learn that, to date, no machine has come close to passing this test (Moor, 2003).

The problem computers face is that we humans can mentally “shift gears” from one topic to another with incredible flexibility. In contrast, machine “intelligence” is currently “blind” outside its underlying set of rules (D’Mello, Graesser, & King, 2010). As a tiny example, u cann understnd wrds thet ar mizpeld. Computers are very literal and easily stymied by such errors.

Regardless, AI has been successful at very specific tasks (such as playing chess or solving a Rubik’s Cube). Much of current AI is based on the fact that many tasks—from harmonizing music to diagnosing disease—can be reduced to a set of rules applied to a collection of information. AI is valuable in situations in which speed, vast mem- ory, and persistence are required. In fact, AI programs are better at

some tasks than humans are. An example is world chess champion Garry Kasparov’s loss, in 1997, to a computer called “Deep Blue.”

Artificial Intelligence and Cognition Although AI is a long way from duplicating general human intel- ligence, AI systems like the Cubinator offer a way to probe some of our specific cognitive skills, or intelligences. For instance, com- puter simulations and expert systems provide good examples of how AI is used as a research tool.

Computer simulations are programs that attempt to duplicate specific human behaviors, especially thinking, decision making, and problem solving. Here, the computer acts as a “laboratory” for testing models of cognition. If a computer program behaves as humans do (including making the same errors), then the program may be a good model of how we think.

Expert systems are computer programs that respond as a human expert would (Giarratano & Riley, 2005; Mahmoodabadi et al., 2010). They have demystified some human abilities by converting complex skills into clearly stated rules a computer can follow. Expert systems can predict the weather, analyze geological forma- tions, diagnose disease, play chess, read, tell when to buy or sell stocks, and perform many other tasks.

Eventually, AI will almost certainly lead to robots that recognize voices and that speak and act “intelligently” in specific areas of abil- ity. To achieve this, should intelligence be directly programmed into computers? Or should computers be designed to learn from experi- ence, like the human brain does? (Sporns, 2011). Only time will tell.

Multiple Intelligences Defining intelligence as a g-factor (general ability) has been contro- versial. For example, consider William, a grade-school student two years behind in reading, who shows his teacher how to solve a dif- ficult computer-programming problem. Or what about his class- mate, Malika, who is poor in math but plays intricate pieces of piano music? Both of these children show clear signs of what we earlier referred to as aptitudes. And, as we have seen, autistic savants like Kim Peek have even more extreme intellectual strengths and weaknesses. Such observations have convinced many psychologists that it is time to forge new, broader definitions of intelligence. Their basic goal is to better predict “real-world” success—not just the likelihood of success in school (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2006).

The “Cubinator” solving a Rubik’s Cube at the 2007 Rubik’s Cube World Champi- onships. The winner, in 10 seconds, was a person. The Cubinator took 26 seconds. To what extent is the way the Cubinator comes up with solutions helpful for understanding how humans do it?

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Knowledge Builder Heredity, Environment, and Alternate

Views of Intelligence RECITE 1. Selective breeding for desirable characteristics is called

______________________________. 2. The closest similarity in IQs would be observed for

a. parents and their children b. identical twins reared apart c. frater- nal twins reared together d. siblings reared together

3. Most psychologists believe that intelligence is 90 percent hereditary. T or F?

4. Except for slight variations during testing, IQ cannot be changed. T or F? 5. Reaction time has been used as a measure of ___________________

intelligence. a. experiential b. neural c. reflective d. analytical

6. According to Howard Gardner’s theory, which of the following is not measured by traditional IQ tests? a. intrapersonal skills b. spatial skills c. logical skills d. linguistic skills

REFLECT Think Critically

7. Dropping out of school can lower tested IQ and attending school can raise it. What do these observations reveal about intelligence tests?

8. Is it ever accurate to describe a machine as “intelligent”?

Frames of Mind One such psychologist is Howard Gardner of Harvard University. Gardner (2003, 2004, 2008) theorizes that there are actually eight distinctly different kinds of intelligence. These are different mental “languages” that people use for thinking. Each is listed below, with examples of pursuits that make use of them.

1. Language (linguistic abilities)—writer, lawyer, comedian. 2. Logic and math (numeric abilities)—scientist, accountant,

programmer. 3. Visual and spatial (pictorial abilities)—engineer, inventor,

artist. 4. Music (musical abilities)—composer, musician, music critic. 5. Bodily-kinesthetic (physical abilities)—dancer, athlete, surgeon. 6. Intrapersonal (self-knowledge)—poet, actor, minister. 7. Interpersonal (social abilities)—psychologist, teacher,

politician. 8. Naturalist (an ability to understand the natural environ-

ment)—biologist, medicine man, organic farmer.

To simplify a great deal, people can be “word smart,” “number smart,” “picture smart,” “music smart,” “body smart,” “self smart,” “people smart,” and/or “nature smart.”

Most of us are probably strong in only a few types of intelli- gence. In contrast, geniuses like Albert Einstein seem to be able to use nearly all of the intelligences, as needed, to solve problems.

If Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is correct, tradi- tional IQ tests measure only a part of real-world intelligence— namely, linguistic, logical-mathematical, and spatial abilities. A further implication is that our schools may be wasting a lot of human potential (Campbell, Campbell, & Dickinson, 2003). For

example, some children might find it easier to learn math or read- ing if these topics were tied into art, music, dance, drama, and so on. Already, many schools are using Gardner’s theory to cultivate a wider range of skills and talents (Campbell, Campbell, & Dickin- son, 2003; Kornhaber & Gardner, 2006).

A Look Ahead As promised earlier, the Psychology in Action section of this chapter addresses questions concerning the validity of intelligence tests and their fairness to various groups. The issues raised go to the heart of the question “What is intelligence?” In addition to being highly interesting and culturally relevant, this topics should round out your understanding of intelligence.

According to Howard Gardner’s theory, bodily-kinesthetic skills reflect one of eight distinct types of intelligence.

Self-Reflect

Why do you think studies of hereditary and environmental influences on intelligence have provoked such emotional debate? Which side of the debate would you expect each of the following people to favor: teacher, parent, school administrator, politician, medical doctor, liberal, conserva- tive, bigot?

Would you rather have your own intelligence measured with a speed of processing test or a traditional IQ test? Why?

Here’s a mnemonic: New experiences reflect three kinds of intelligence. Can you define neural, experiential, and reflective intelligence in your own words?

Make your own list of specialized intelligences. How many items on your list correspond to the 8 intelligences identified by Gardner?

Answers: 1. eugenics 2. b 3. F 4. F 5. b 6. a 7. Such observations remind us that intelligence tests are affected by learning and that they measure knowledge as well as innate cognitive abilities. 8. Rule-driven expert sys- tems may appear “intelligent” within a narrow range of problem solving. However, they are idiots at everything else. This is usually not what we have in mind when discussing human intelligence.

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Intelligence 323

Multiple intelligences Howard Gardner’s theory that there are several specialized types of intellectual ability.

you may actually know what your IQ is. If not, the following self-administered test will provide a rough estimate of your IQ. Most people are curious about how they would score on an intelligence test. Why not give the Dove test a try?

If you scored 14 on this exam, your IQ is approximately 100, indicating average intelli- gence. If you scored 10 or less, you are intel- lectually disabled. With luck and the help of a special educational program, we may be able to teach you a few simple skills!

Isn’t the Dove Test a little unfair? No, it is very unfair. It was written in 1971 by African- American sociologist Adrian Dove as “a half serious attempt to show that we’re just not talking the same language.” Dove tried to slant his test as much in favor of urban, Afri- can American culture as he believes the typi- cal intelligence test is biased toward a Euro- pean American, middle-class background ( Jones, 2003). (Because of its age, the test is probably now also unfair even for younger African Americans.)

Dove’s test is a thought-provoking reply to the fact that African American children score an average of about 15 points lower on stan- dardized IQ tests than European American children. By reversing the bias, Dove has shown that intelligence tests are not equally valid for all groups. Psychologist Jerome Kagan once remarked, “If the Wechsler and Binet scales were translated into Spanish, Swahili, and Chinese and given to every 10-year-old in Latin America, East Africa, and China, the majority would obtain IQ scores in the mentally retarded range.”

Culture-Fair Testing Certainly we cannot believe that children of different cultures are all intellectually dis- abled. The fault must lie with the test (White, 2006). Cultural values, traditions, and experi- ences can greatly affect performance on tests designed for Western cultures (Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2005; Neisser et al., 1996). For example, our culture places a high value on logic and formal reasoning. Other cultures regard intuition as an important part of what it means to be smart (Norenzayan et al., 2002). Imagine giving the Stanford-Binet to a

Intelligent Intelligence Testing—User Beware!Psychology in Action

Gateway Question 9.8: Is there a downside to intelligence testing? During their lifetimes, most people take an intelligence test, or one of the closely related scholastic aptitude tests. If you have ever taken an individually administered IQ test,

Time limit: 5 minutes. Circle the correct answer. 1. T-bone Walker got famous for playing

what? a. trombone b. piano c. T-flute

d. guitar e. “hambone” 2. A “gas head” is a person who has a a. fast-moving car. b. stable of “lace.”

c. “process.” d. habit of stealing cars. e. long jail record for arson

3. If you throw the dice and 7 is showing on the top, what is facing down? a. 7 b. snake eyes c. boxcars d. little

joes e. 11 4. Cheap chitlings (not the kind you

purchase at a frozen-food counter) will taste rubbery unless they are cooked long enough. How soon can you quit cooking them to eat and enjoy them? a. 45 minutes b. 2 hours c. 24 hours

d. 1 week (on a low flame) e. 1 hour

5. Bird or Yardbird was the jacket jazz lovers from coast to coast hung on a. Lester Young b. Peggy Lee

c. Benny Goodman d. Charlie Parker e. Birdman of Alcatraz

6. A “handkerchief head” is a. a cool cat. b. a porter. c. an Uncle

Tom. d. a hoddi. e. a preacher 7. Jet is

a. an East Oakland motorcycle club. b. one of the gangs in West Side Story. c. a news and gossip magazine. d. a way of life for the very rich

Dove Counterbalance Intelligence Test

8. “Bo Diddley” is a a. game for children. b. down-home

cheap wine. c. down-home singer. d. new dance. e. Moejoe call

9. Which word is most out of place here? a. splib b. blood c. gray d. spook

e. black 10. If a pimp is uptight with a woman who

gets state aid, what does he mean when he talks about “Mother’s Day”?

a. second Sunday in May b. third Sunday in June c. first of every month d. none of these e. first and fifteenth of every month

11. Many people say that “Juneteenth” ( June 10th) should be made a legal holiday because this was the day when

a. the slaves were freed in the United States. b. the slaves were freed in Texas. c. the slaves were freed in Jamaica. d. the slaves were freed in California. e. Martin Luther King was born. f. Booker T. Washington died

12. If a man is called a “blood,” then he is a a. fighter b. Mexican-American

c. Black d. hungry hemophile e. red man or Indian

13. What are the Dixie Hummingbirds? a. a part of the KKK b. a swamp

disease c. a modern gospel group d. a Mississippi Negro paramilitary strike force e. deacons

14. The opposite of square is a. round. b. up c. down d. hip

e. lame

Answers: 1. d 2. c 3. a 4. c 5. d 6. c 7. c 8. c 9. c 10. c 11. b 12. c 13. c 14. d

Chapter 9324 Chapter 9324

in St. Louis and found that the African Amer- ican group averaged 36 points higher than the European American group.

Second, it is no secret that as a group African Americans are more likely than European Americans to live in environments that are physically, educationally, and intel- lectually impoverished. When unequal edu- cation is part of the equation, IQs may tell us little about how heredity affects intelligence (Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005; Suzuki & Aronson, 2005). Indeed, one study found that placing poor African American children into European American adoptive families increased the children’s IQs by an average of 13 points, bringing them into line with those of European American children (Nisbett, 2005). That is, providing African American children with the same environ- mental experiences available to European American children erased IQ differences.

A tantalizing hint that lower African American IQ scores are not genetic is pro- vided by Ray Friedman and his colleagues at Vanderbilt University who administered a 20-item test to African American and Euro- pean American students. Before the election of Barack Obama, African American stu- dents performed more poorly than European American students. During the election, African American students performed just as well as their European American counter- parts. Apparently, President Obama is pro- viding a role model, inspiring better academic performance in African American students (Tite, 2009).

Further, although IQ predicts school per- formance, it does not predict later career suc- cess (McClelland, 1994). In this regard, “street smarts,” or what psychologist Robert Sternberg calls practical intelligence (Stemler & Sternberg, 2006), is often seen by minority cultures as more important than “book learn- ing,” or what Sternberg calls analytic intelli- gence (Sankofa et al., 2005).

Most psychologists have concluded that there is no scientific evidence that group dif- ferences in average IQ are based on genetics. In fact, studies that used actual blood group testing found no significant correlations between ethnic ancestry and IQ scores. This is because it does not even make genetic sense to talk about “races” at all—obvious external markers, like skin color, have little to do with underlying genetic differences (Bonham et al., 2005; Sternberg, 2007). Group differences in

IQ and Race Historically, African American children in the United States scored an average of about 15 points lower on standardized IQ tests than European-American children. As a group, Japanese American children scored above average in IQ. Could such differences be genetic? One persistent claim is that Afri- can Americans score below average in IQ because of their “genetic heritage” and because they are genetically incapable of climbing out of poverty (Hernstein & Mur- ray, 1994; Rushton & Jensen, 2005). Psy- chologists have responded to such claims with a number of counterarguments.

First, psychologists reiterate the point made by the Dove Test. The assumptions, biases, and content of standard IQ tests do not always allow meaningful comparisons between ethnic, cultural, or racial groups (White, 2006). As Leon Kamin (1981) says, “The important fact is that we cannot say which sex (or race) might be more intelligent, because we have no way of measuring ‘intelli- gence.’ We have only IQ tests.”

Kamin’s point is that the makers of IQ tests decided in advance to use test items that would give men and women equal IQ scores. It would be just as easy to put together an IQ test that would give African Americans and European Americans equal scores. Differ- ences in IQ scores are not a fact of nature, but a decision by the test makers. That’s why European Americans do better on IQ tests written by European Americans, and African Americans do better on IQ tests devised by African Americans. Another example of this fact is an intelligence test made up of 100 words selected from the Dictionary of Afro-American Slang. Williams (1975) gave the test to 100 African American and 100 European American high school students

young Bushman hunter. If tracking prey is what he values and is good at, then what would it mean if (when?) he got a low IQ score? (Feel free to reread “Intelligence— How Would a Fool Do It?” near the begin- ning of this chapter.)

To avoid this problem, some psychologists have tried to develop culture-fair tests that do not disadvantage certain groups. A culture- fair test is designed to minimize the impor- tance of skills and knowledge that may be more common in some cultures than in oth- ers. (For a sample of culture-fair test items, see • Figure 9.9.)

Culture-fair tests attempt to measure intelligence without, as much as possible, being influenced by a person’s verbal skills, cultural background, and educational level. Their value lies not just in testing people from other cultures. They are also useful for testing children in the United States who come from poor communities, rural areas, or ethnic minority families (Stephens et al., 1999). However, no intelligence test can be entirely free of cultural influences. For instance, our culture is very “visual,” because children are constantly exposed to television, movies, video games, and the like. Thus, compared with children in developing countries, a child who grows up in the United States may be better prepared to take both nonverbal tests and traditional IQ tests.

Since the concept of intelligence exhibits diversity across cultures, many psychologists have begun to stress the need to rethink the concept of intelligence itself (Greenfield, 1997; Sternberg & Grigorenko, 2005). If we are to find a truly culture-fair way to measure intelli- gence, we first need to identify those core cog- nitive skills that lie at the heart of human intel- ligence the world around (Gardner, 2008; Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010).

1 2 3 4 5 1 2 3 4 5

(a) Sample series problem (b) Sample matrix problem

• Figure 9.9 Sample items like those often found on culture-fair intelligence tests. (a) Sample series problem. Which pattern correctly continues the series of patterns shown at the top left? (Number 4.) (b) Sample matrix problem. Which pattern fits best completes the matrix of patterns shown at the top right? (Number 1.) The idea is that the ability to read and the mastery of culturally relevant knowledge should not be necessary to do well. Nev- ertheless, do you think illiterate street orphans from Sao Paulo, Brazil, or Aboriginals living in the desert of the Aus- tralian outback would find these items as easy to complete as you did? If not, can you think of any alternative truly culture-fair ways to test intelligence across different cultures?

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Intelligence 325 Intelligence 325

Culture-fair test A test designed to minimize the importance of skills and knowledge that may be more common in some cultures than in others.

tests, overuse of class time to prepare students for the tests (instead of teaching general skills), and in the case of intelligence tests, the charge that tests are often biased. Also, most standardized tests demand passive rec- ognition of facts, assessed with a multiple- choice format. They do not, for the most part, test a person’s ability to think critically or creatively or to apply knowledge to solve problems. Various “high-stakes tests,” which can make or break a person’s career could be improved by: (1) removing all questions that favor one group over another; (2) using digi- tal video-based testing, when possible, to reduce the importance of verbal skills; and (3) providing a pre-test orientation for all test takers, so that people who can afford coach- ing won’t have an unfair advantage (Sackett et al., 2001).

High Stakes Testing Intelligence tests are a double-edged sword; we have learned much from their use yet they have the potential to do great harm. In the final analysis, it is impor- tant to remember—as Howard Gardner has pointed out—that creativity, motivation, physical health, mechanical aptitude, artistic ability, and numerous other qualities not mea- sured by intelligence tests contribute to the achievement of life goals. Also, remember that IQ is not intelligence. IQ is an index of intelligence (as narrowly defined by a particu- lar test). Change the test and you change the score. An IQ is not some permanent number stamped on the forehead of a child that for- ever determines his or her potential. The real issue is what skills people have, not what their test scores are (Hunt, 1995).

The Whole Human: Wisdom In the final analysis, intelligence reflects devel- opment as well as potential, nurture as well as nature (Grigorenko, 2005). Moreover, the fact that intelligence is partly determined by heredity tells us little of any real value. Genes are fixed at birth. Improving the environ- ments in which children learn and grow is the

group of college students with straight A’s to another group with poor grades, he found no differences in later career success (McClelland, 1994).

Standardized Testing In addition to IQ tests, 400 to 500 million standardized multiple-choice tests are given in schools and workplaces around the nation each year. Many, like the SAT Reasoning Test, may determine whether a person is admitted to college. Other tests—for employment, licensing, and certification—directly affect the lives of thousands by qualifying or dis- qualifying them for jobs.

Widespread reliance on standardized intel- ligence tests and aptitude tests raises questions about the relative good and harm they do. On the positive side, tests can open opportunities as well as close them. A high test score may allow a disadvantaged youth to enter college, or it may identify a child who is bright but emotionally disturbed. Test scores may also be fairer and more objective than arbitrary judg- ments made by admissions officers or employ- ment interviewers. Also, tests do accurately predict academic performance. The fact that academic performance does not predict later success may call for an overhaul of college course work, not an end to testing.

On the negative side, mass testing can occasionally exclude people of obvious abil- ity. In one case, a student who was seventh in his class at Columbia University, and a mem- ber of Phi Beta Kappa, was denied entrance to law school because he had low scores on the Law School Admissions Test. Other com- plaints relate to the frequent appearance of bad or ambiguous questions on standardized

IQ scores are based on cultural and environ- mental diversity, as much as on heredity (Neisser et al., 1996; Nisbett, 2005). To con- clude otherwise reflects political beliefs and biases, not scientific facts.

Questioning IQ—Beyond the Numbers Game African Americans are not the only segment of the population with reason to question the validity of intelligence testing and the role of heredity in determining intelligence. The clarifications they have won extend to others as well.

Consider the 9-year-old child confronted with this question on an intelligence test: “Which of the following does not belong with the others? Roller skates, airplane, train, bicycle.” If the child fails to answer “airplane,” does it reveal a lack of intelligence? It can be argued that an intelligent choice could be based on any of these alternatives: Roller skates are not typically used for transporta- tion; an airplane is the only nonland item; a train can’t be steered; a bicycle is the only item with just two wheels. The parents of a child who misses this question may have reason to be angry since educational systems tend to classify children and then make the label stick.

Court decisions have led some states to outlaw the use of intelligence tests in public schools. Criticism of intelligence testing has also come from the academic community. Har- vard University psychologist David McClel- land believes that IQ is of little value in predict- ing real competence to deal effectively with the world. McClelland concedes that IQ predicts school performance, but when he compared a

“Yes We Can.” President Obama’s intelligence is inspiring millions of Americans and others around the world to aspire to greater aca- demic success. His example is particularly important to African Americans.

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convergent thinking, intelligence, and reason, spiced with creativity and originality (Meeks & Jeste, 2009). People who are wise approach life with openness and tolerance (Helson & Srivastava, 2002).

tests may make a total mess of her life. Like- wise, people can be intelligent without being creative; and clear, rational thinking can lead to correct, but uninspired, answers (Solomon, Marshall, & Gardner, 2005). In many areas of human life, wisdom represents a mixture of

main way in which we can ensure that they reach their full potential (Grigorenko & Sternberg, 2003; White, 2006).

Perhaps most importantly, people can be intelligent without being wise. For example, a person who does well in school and on IQ

Chapter in Review Gateways to Intelligence

9.1 How do psychologists define intelligence? 9.1.1 Intelligence refers to the general capacity (or g-factor)

to act purposefully, think rationally, and deal effectively with the environment.

9.1.2 In practice, intelligence is operationally defined by intelligence tests, which provide a useful but narrow estimate of real-world intelligence.

9.1.3 General intelligence is distinguished from specific aptitudes. Special aptitude tests and multiple aptitude tests are used to assess a person’s capacities for learning various abilities. Aptitude tests measure a narrower range of abilities than general intelligence tests do.

9.1.4 To be of any value, a psychological test must be reliable (give consistent results). A worthwhile test must also have validity, meaning that it measures what it claims to measure. Widely used

intelligence tests are also objective (they give the same result when scored by different people) and standardized (the same procedures are always used in giving the test, and norms have been established so that scores can be interpreted).

9.2 What are typical IQ tests like? 9.2.1 The first practical intelligence test was assembled by

Alfred Binet. A modern version of Binet’s test is the Stanford- Binet Intelligence Scales—Fifth Edition (SB5).

9.2.2 A second major intelligence test is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale-Fourth Edition (WAIS-IV). Wechsler’s children’s version is the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children—Fourth Edi- tion (WISC-IV).

9.2.3 The SB5, WAIS-IV, and WISC-IV measure both ver- bal and performance intelligence.

Gateway QUESTIONS REVISITED

Knowledge Builder Intelligence Testing in Perspective

RECITE 1. The WAIS-IV, Stanford-Binet 5, and Dove Test are all culture-fair intel-

ligence scales. T or F? 2. The claim that heredity accounts for racial differences in average IQ

ignores environmental differences and the cultural bias inherent in standard IQ tests. T or F?

3. IQ scores predict school performance. T or F? 4. IQ is not intelligence; it is one index of intelligence. T or F?

REFLECT Think Critically

5. Assume that a test of memory for words is translated from English to Spanish. Would the Spanish version of the test be equal in difficulty to the English version?

Self-Reflect

Do you think it would be possible to create an intelligence test that is uni- versally culture-fair? What would its questions look like? Can you think of any type of question that wouldn’t favor the mental skills emphasized by some culture, somewhere in the world?

Funding for schools in some states varies greatly in rich and poor neighborhoods. Imagine that a politician opposes spending more money on disadvantaged students because she believes it would “just be a waste.” What arguments can you offer against her assertion?

In your own opinion, what are the advantages of using standardized tests to select applicants for college, graduate school, and professional schools? What are the disadvantages?

Answers: 1. F 2. T 3. T 4. T 5. Probably not, because the Spanish words might be longer or shorter than the same words in English. The Spanish words might also sound more or less alike than words on the original test. Translating an intelligence test into another language can subtly change the meaning and difficulty of test items.

Intelligence 327

9.2.4 In addition to individual tests, intelligence tests have also been produced for use with groups. A group test of historical interest is the Army Alpha. The SAT, the ACT, and the CQT are group scholastic aptitude tests. Although narrower in scope than IQ tests, they bear some similarities to them.

9.2.5 Intelligence is expressed in terms of an intelligence quotient (IQ). IQ is defined as mental age (MA) divided by chronological age (CA) and then multiplied by 100. An “average” IQ of 100 occurs when mental age equals chronological age.

9.2.6 Modern IQ tests no longer calculate IQs directly. Instead, the final score reported by the test is a deviation IQ.

9.2.7 IQ scores become fairly stable at about age 6, and they become increasingly reliable thereafter.

9.3 How do IQ scores relate to sex, age, and occupation? 9.3.1 The distribution of IQ scores approximates a normal

curve. 9.3.2 There are no overall differences between males and

females in tested intelligence. However, very small sex differences may result from the intellectual skills our culture encourages males and females to develop.

9.3.3 On average, IQ scores continue to gradually increase until middle age. Later intellectual declines are moderate for most people until their 70s. Aging also involves a shift from fluid intel- ligence to crystallized intelligence.

9.3.4 IQ is related to school grades and job status. The sec- ond association may be somewhat artificial because educational credentials are required for entry into many occupations.

9.4 What does IQ tell us about genius? 9.4.1 People with IQs in the gifted or “genius” range of

above 140 tend to be superior in many respects. 9.4.2 By criteria other than IQ, a large proportion of chil-

dren might be considered gifted or talented in one way or another. Intellectually gifted children often have difficulties in average classrooms and benefit from special accelerated programs.

9.5 What causes intellectual disability? 9.5.1 People with the savant syndrome combine intellectual

disability with exceptional ability in a very limited skill. 9.5.2 The term intellectually disabled is applied to those

whose IQ falls below 70 or who lack various adaptive behaviors. 9.5.3 Current classifications of intellectual disability are:

mild (50–55 to 70), moderate (35–40 to 50–55), severe (20–25 to 35–40), and profound (below 20–25). Chances for educational success are related to the degree of intellectual disability.

9.5.4 Many cases of subnormal intelligence are thought to be the result of familial intellectual disability, a generally low level

of educational and intellectual stimulation in the home, coupled with poverty and poor nutrition.

9.5.5 About 50 percent of the cases of intellectual disabil- ity are organic, caused by birth injuries, fetal damage, metabolic disorders, or genetic abnormalities. The remaining cases are of undetermined cause.

9.5.6 Six distinct forms of organic intellectual disability are Down syndrome, fragile X syndrome, phenylketonuria (PKU), microcephaly, hydrocephaly, and cretinism.

9.6 How do heredity and environment affect intelligence? 9.6.1 Studies of eugenics in animals and familial relation-

ships in humans demonstrate that intelligence is partially deter- mined by heredity. However, environment is also important, as revealed by changes in tested intelligence induced by schooling and stimulating environments.

9.6.2 There is evidence that some elements of intelligence can be taught. Intelligence, therefore, reflects the combined effects of both heredity and environment in the development of intellec- tual abilities.

9.7 Are there alternate views of intelligence? 9.7.1 Some psychologists are investigating the neural basis

for intelligence, especially the speed of processing various kinds of information and the size of brain areas related to intelligence.

9.7.2 Cognitive psychologists believe that successful intelli- gence depends on thinking and problem solving skills. Metacogni- tive skills, in particular, contribute greatly to intelligent behavior.

9.7.3 Artificial intelligence refers to any artificial system that can perform tasks that require intelligence when done by people. Two principal areas of artificial intelligence research on particular human skills are computer simulations and expert systems.

9.7.4 Many psychologists have begun to forge new, broader definitions of intelligence. Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences is a good example of this trend.

9.8 Is there a downside to intelligence testing? 9.8.1 Traditional IQ tests often suffer from a degree of cul-

tural bias. 9.8.2 African Americans are unfairly stigmatized because of

historically poor performance on standardized IQ tests. 9.8.3 It is wise to remember that IQ is merely an index of

intelligence and that intelligence is narrowly defined by most tests. 9.8.4 The use of standard IQ tests for educational place-

ment of students (especially into special education classes) has been prohibited by law in some states. Whether this is desirable and beneficial to students is currently being debated.

(Intelligence Theory Pptf homework help)

Chapter 9328

Fragile X Find out more about autism and fragile X syndrome from the National Fragile X Foundation.

Mind vs. Machine Read an amusing article about the Loebner Prize, one of the holy grails of artificial intelligence.

RuBot II, The Cubinator – A Rubik’s Cube Solving Robot Watch a robot solve a Rubik’s cube.

Multiple Intelligences in Education Learn more about Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences and how it is being applied in education.

Be Careful of How You Define Intelligence An article about cross- cultural differences in intelligence.

The Bell Curve Flattened An article that summarizes objections to The Bell Curve.

The Genographic Project Trace your own ancestry.

The Knowns and Unknowns of Intelligence From the APA, what is known about intelligence and intelligence tests.

Web Resources Internet addresses frequently change. To find an up-to-date list of URLs for the sites listed here, visit your Psychology CourseMate.

IQ Tests Provides links to a number of IQ tests.

American Mensa Mensa is an international society that has one qualification only for membership: an IQ score in the top 2 percent of the population on a standardized intelligence test.

Gifted Children Learn more about giftedness from the National Association for Gifted Children.

Helping Your Highly Gifted Child Advice for parents of gifted children.

Intellectual Disabilities Learn more about intellectual disability from the American Association on Intellectual and Developmental Disabilities (AAIDD).

Down Syndrome Find out more about Down syndrome from the National Down Syndrome Society.

MEDIA RESOURCES

Intelligence 329

Interactive Learning Log in to CengageBrain to access the resources your instructor requires. For this book, you can access:

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If your professor has assigned Aplia homework: 1. Sign in to your account. 2. Complete the corresponding homework exercises

as required by your professor. 3. When finished, click “Grade It Now” to see which areas you have

mastered and which need more work, and for detailed explanations of every answer.

Visit www.cengagebrain.com to access your account and purchase materials.

CourseMate brings course concepts to life with interactive learning, study, and exam preparation tools that support the printed textbook. A textbook-specific website, Psychology CourseMate includes an integrated interactive eBook and other interactive learning tools including quizzes, flashcards, videos, and more.

CengageNOW is an easy-to-use online resource that helps you study in less time to get the grade you want—NOW. Take a pre-test for this chapter and receive a personalized study plan based on your results that will identify the topics you need to review and direct you to online resources to help you master those topics. Then take a post-test to help you determine the concepts you have mastered and what you will need to work on. If your textbook does not include an access code card, go to CengageBrain.com to gain access.

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Psychology Test homework help

February 2, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Psychology Test homework help

Who can complete my exam asap!!!!

A functionalist would likely ask which one of the following questions about socially assistive robots?

a. How will socially assistive robots affect interaction?

b. What meanings do people assign to socially assistive robots?

c. Who benefits from socially assistive robots and at whose expense?

d. What are the intended and unintended consequences of socially assistive robots? 1 points

Question 5 Which of the following is a false statement about the characteristics of high-quality sociological research?

a. Sociological findings endure as long as the research process can be replicated.

b. Once a sociological study is completed, findings are considered final.

c. Sociologists strive to be objective.

d. Sociologists invite others to critique their work. 1 points

Question 6 Which one of the following phrases would Marx be least likely to use to describe capitalism?

a. blood-sucking

b. a boundless thirst

c. a werewolf-like hunger

d. socially conscious 1 points

Question 7 The early sociologists were witnesses to the transforming effects of the

a. the Industrial Revolution.

b. World War II.

c. World War I.

d. War in Afghanistan. 1 points

Question 8 Each of the _____ offers a central question to direct thinking and key concepts to organize answers.

a. negotiated order b. social actions

c. theoretical perspectives

d. methods of research 1 points

Question 9 _____ is the theorist most likely to draw attention to unconditional basic income as a response to widespread unemployment.

a. Karl Marx

b. Max Weber

c. Auguste Comte

d. Emile Durkheim 1 points

Question 10 _____ is the sociologist who focused on the factors that strengthen, weaken, or otherwise shape the character of social ties.

a. Karl Marx

b. Emile Durkheim

c. W.E.B Dubois

d. Max Weber 1 points

Question 11 Smart phones, introduced in 1996, are now a global-scale phenomenon. Some people in remote locations have embraced smart phone apps that connect them with health care providers anywhere in the world. This development illustrates the twin forces of

a. industrialization and mechanization.

b. globalization and glocalization.

c. troubles and issues.

d. human activity and media. 1 points

Question 12 The _____ is the best perspective to draw upon for exploring human-robot interactions. a

. social action theory

b. functionalist

c. symbolic interaction

d. conflict 1 points

Question 13 The defining feature of the Industrial Revolution was

a. solidarity.

b. mechanization.

c. standardization.

d. modernization. 1 points

Question 14 The question “Who benefits from a particular pattern or social arrangement?” is of most interest to a(n)

a. conflict theorist.

b. symbolic interactionist.

c. action theorist.

d. functionalist. 1 points

Question 15 “Knowing one another better reinforces the common connection such that the potential for caring and empathetic moral actions increase.” This statement summarizes the essence of a. sympathetic knowledge.

b. double consciousness.

c. solidarity.

d. division of labor. 1 points

Question 16 An employer tells workers “If you aren’t happy with the pay and working conditions here, go work somewhere else! It’s a free country.” Conflict theorists call this line of reasoning

a. cultural relativity.

b. sympathetic knowledge.

c. good business practice.

d. the façade of legitimacy. 1 points

Question 17 The Communist Manifesto is a famous pamphlet that _____ co-authored with Fredrich Engels.

a. Emile Durkheim.

b. Karl Marx.

c. Max Weber.

d. W.E.B. DuBois. 1 points

Question 18 When in a nation of 150 million workers, 24 million are unemployed, that is

a. a crime.

b. a trouble.

c. an issue.

d. personal tragedy. 1 points

Question 19 Which of the following would be the best option to obtain a representative sample of students at your college?

a. At random, draw a list of students from the most recent college registrar’s list.

b. Stop students as they are walking to their cars in parking lots and ask them to participate.

c. Ask all of the sociology majors to participate in the study.

d. Ask students eating in the cafeteria at lunchtime to participate in an important study. 1 points

Question 20 The term ___________________ describes a state in which ties attaching individuals to others in the society are weak.

a. egoistic

b. fatalistic

c. altruistic

d. anomic 1 points

Question 21 Jared lives in a consumption-oriented culture. He decides to do historical research to understand how a country might develop a conservation-oriented way of life. Jared’s approach is influenced by

a. Max Weber.

b. Emile Durkheim.

c. Karl Marx.

d. Auguste Comte. 1 points

Question 22 When Oreo cookies are transplanted into a new setting and then changed to fit local tastes, the process is known as

a. globalization.

b. industrialization.

c. glocalization.

d. the sociological imagination. 1 points

Question 23 The high school dropout rate in the United States is greater than 25 percent. C. Wright Mills would classify this situation as

a. an issue.

b. a trouble.

c. value-rational action.

d. a social fact. 1 points

Question 24 Lee’s research involving Snackbot showed that under the right conditions, people can form collegial (even social) relationships with workplace robots. This finding relates to the _____ perspective.

a. functionalist

b. symbolic interactionist

c. social action

d. conflict 1 points

Question 25 Marx believed that ________ was the first economic system that could maximize the immense productive potential of human labor and ingenuity.

a. democracy

b. capitalism

c. socialism

d. communism 1 points

Question 26 According to functionalists, poverty exists because

a. somebody has to be on the bottom.

b. it contributes in some way to the stability of an existing social order.

c. the poor lack the drive to do better.

d. the poor are largely unmotivated to work. 1 points

Question 27 One unintended or unexpected disruption of socially assistive robots is that people may actually prefer the company of robots over fellow humans. This situation represents

a. manifest dysfunction.

b. manifest function.

c. latent dysfunction.

d. latent function. 1 points

Question 28 As driveless technologies are developed we anticipate that 1.6 million long-distance truck drivers will be at risk of losing their jobs. This situation is an example of

a. an issue.

b. an opportunity.

c. a trouble.

d. a personal crisis. 1 points

Question 29 Behavior influenced by the attention one receives from being the subject of a research study is the

a. latent effect.

b. experimental effect.

c. Hawthorne effect.

d. special subject effect. 1 points

Question 30 Which one of the following aspects of the globalization process would Weber be most concerned?

a. The ways in which globalization reduces wages.

b. The ways in which globalization undermines behavior motivated by tradition.

c. The way in which globalization creates hardships for low-income households.

d. The way in which globalization undermines local ties. 1 points

Question 31 Which of the following is something symbolic interactionists emphasize? a. outcomes b. negotiated order c. functions d. means of production 1 points

Question 32 If an individual pursues a college degree because everyone in his or her family going back five generations is college-educated, the action can be classified as

a. value-rational.

b. instrumental rational

c. traditional.

d. affectional. 1 points

Question 33 Which one of the following sociologists would most likely advocate for putting low-cost technologies such as smart phones into the hands of those who are disadvantaged?

a. Max Weber

b. Jane Addams

c. Emile Durkheim

d. Auguste Comte 1 points

Question 34 A trial explanation predicting a relationship between independent and dependent variables is a(n)

a. theory.

b. fact.

c. observation.

d. hypothesis. 1 points

Question 35 If one respondent gives different answers to the same question at two different points in time, the researcher should be concerned about

a. reliability.

b. the Hawthorne effect.

c. representativeness.

d. validity. 1 points

Question 36 Which one of the following assumptions applies to the scientific method?

a. Research findings can be manipulated to advance a good cause.

b. Knowledge is acquired through observation.

c. Truth is confirmed through faith.

d. Research finding should not be replicated. 1 points

Question 37 W.E.B. Dubois traced the origin of _________ to the scramble for Africa’s resources, beginning with the slave trade.

a. disenchantment

b. the color line

c. troubles

d. double consciousness 1 points

Question 38 Which one of the following statements represents a criticism of the functionalist perspective?

a. It leaves us wondering about a part’s overall effect.

b. It focuses on the “small stuff.”

c. It is too liberal.

d. It focuses on the “have nots.” 1 points

Question 39 Jamie gains first-hand knowledge about poverty by working at a food bank. This kind of knowledge is known as, a. social research. b. sympathetic knowledge. c. solidarity. d. double consciousness. 1 points

Question 40 Researchers should maintain objectivity. This means they should

a. not accept funding from outside sources.

b. not let personal and subjective views about the topic influence observations or outcome of research.

c. refuse to share data with others.

d. stay away from topics in which they have a personal interest. 1 points

Question 41 The actions of someone who always gives their best effort and never cuts corners would qualify as ____ action.

a. affective

b. instrumental rational

c. traditional

d. value rational 1 points

Question 42 If socially assistive robots assume caregiving roles, a number of unanticipated consequences may occur such as the elimination of sexual abuse. This unanticipated consequence is a a. manifest function.

b. latent function.

c. manifest dysfunction.

d. latent dysfunction. 1 points

Question 43 Which one of the following statements describes the best way to apply the three perspectives?

a. Most sociologists analyze an issue using one perspective.

b. We can acquire a more complete view of something by applying all three perspectives.

c. Only one perspective can give us a complete picture of a process or an event.

d. The three perspectives should be viewed as opposing viewpoints. 1 points

Question 44 Jane Addams maintained that Hull House

a. was the equivalent of an applied university.

b. was a failed experiment in social engineering.

c. could not deliver services that helped working poor.

d. was analogous to a community college. 1 points

Question 45 Auguste Comte recommended that sociologists study

a. the color line.

b. the things people have created.

c. conflict as in agent of change.

d. the ties that bind. 1 points

Question 46 The obesity rate in the United States is greater than 30 percent. According to Mills, the key to resolving this issue involves focusing on a. the character flaws of the 92 million plus Americans who are obese.

b. getting people to eat less.

c. addressing the underlying social forces that contribute to obesity. d. ways to get the obese to want to lose weight. 1 points Question 47 Which one of the following concepts applies to the façade of legitimacy?

a. fair analysis

b. misleading

c. logical

d. well-documented assertions 1 points

Question 48 The question “Is this operational definition really measuring what it claims to measure?” addresses concerns surrounding

a. correlations.

b. sampling.

c. validity.

d. reliability. 1 points

Question 49 The economic system accompanying and driving the Industrial Revolution was

a. the welfare state.

b. socialism.

c. communism.

d. capitalism. 1 points

Question 50 The gay pride movement can be traced to 1897 in Berlin Germany and has spread to various locations around the world. 115 years later the first gay bar was established in Lamai Beach, Thailand. This movement illustrates the twin forces of

a. industrialization and mechanization.

b. troubles and issues.

c. globalization and glocalization.

d. human activity and media.

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Psychology Quiz One homework help

February 2, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Psychology Quiz One homework help

PHIL 201 Quiz 1

(Set: 1)

• Question 1
When I seek to know if a belief is true, I am performing the task of:
• Question 2
The study of biology would be considered a
• Question 3
Which statement best expresses Socrates idea that the unexamined life is not worth living:
• Question 4
Philosophy evaluates everything including issues of faith.
• Question 5
Which of the beliefs below would qualify as a foundational belief:
• Question 6
Our epistemic obligations include the duty to clarify and justify our beliefs.
• Question 7
The element of comprehensiveness means a worldview should account for every possible belief.
• Question 8
By saying worldview is consistent we mean that:
• Question 9
An attitude of examining beliefs to determine what the mean and if they are true is called:
• Question 10
What should one do if one encounters a new belief that creates inconsistency in a one’s set of beliefs:
• Question 11
How does Jesus affirm the importance of using reason:
• Question 12
According to the reading, it is possible to do hermeneutics without doing philosophy, however you never should.
• Question 13
The problems listed in the reading with the view that “Christians don’t need philosophy, we have the Bible,” include the following:
• Question 14
The three elements listed in the reading that fulfill the biblical mandate to develop a Christian philosophical mindset would include one of the following:
• Question 15
The passage of scripture that says we should beware of vain and deceptive philosophy is:
• Question 16
The branch of philosophy that deals with general theories of values is:
• Question 17
According to the presentation, when dealing with a difficult text in the Bible, every alternative interpretation deserves equally serious consideration.
• Question 18
Which of the following was NOT within the guidelines recommended for the “critical use” of scripture in doing philosophy:
• Question 19
The question of the existence of God comes under which branch of philosophy:
• Question 20
In the presentation we answered the misconception that there are no answers to most philosophical questions by saying:
(Set: 2)
Question 1
It is possible to be completely rational and justified and still be wrong.
Question 2
The study of biology would be considered a
Question 3
Which statement best expresses Socrates idea that the unexamined life is not worth living:
Question 4
Philosophy and science are different in that:
Question 5
Philosophy is more concerned with newly emerging concepts than with perennial, foundational issues.
Question 6
Which of the following is true:
Question 7
The ways in which philosophy is practical, according to the reading, include:
Question 8
By saying worldview is coherent we mean that:
Question 9
The one below that is NOT one of the benefits described in the reading of examining and evaluating our beliefs:
Question 10
An attitude of examining beliefs to determine what the mean and if they are true is called:
Question 11
One finds a general principle in Scripture and then attempts to apply it to an example in current times. The presentation describes this process as:
Question 12
Philosophy aids evangelism specifically by:
Question 13
The three elements listed in the reading that fulfill the biblical mandate to develop a Christian philosophical mindset would include one of the following:
Question 14
To offer a defense for the Christian faith from outside attacks is the task of:
Question 15
Philosophy aids theology by:
Question 16
Philosophy is about asking questions of which there are no real answers.
Question 17
We should be open to changing our interpretation of passage if the evidence warrants that we should do so.
Question 18
The subbranch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of existence itself is:
Question 19
The branch of philosophy that deals with general theories of values is:
Question 20
The Bible adequately addresses almost every philosophical issue and question.

(Set: 3)

• Question 1
A comprehensive system of beliefs that functions as an explanation and interpretation of reality is called:
• Question 2
Which statement best expresses Socrates idea that the unexamined life is not worth living:
• Question 3
Philosophy is mostly interested in discovering new factual data.
• Question 4
A statement about what a person ought to do is called:
• Question 5
What was Kierkegaard’s point about understanding life backward but living it forward:
• Question 6
Adopting the philosophical mindset is more like ajob than a vocation.
• Question 7
The main way mentioned in the reading that the philosophical mindset helps in making moral decisions by:
• Question 8
Our epistemic obligations include the duty to clarify and justify our beliefs.
• Question 9
Our intellectual appetite is a natural desire to know and understand.
• Question 10
The science and art of interpreting scripture is called:
• Question 11
Philosophy aids evangelism specifically by:
• Question 12
The three elements listed in the reading that fulfill the biblical mandate to develop a Christian philosophical mindset would include one of the following:
• Question 13
Prooftexting is often a legitimate way to use scripture.
• Question 14
What was Paul doing in Col 2:
• Question 15
In the presentation the fideist use of the Bible was opposed by the concept of natural revelation.
• Question 16
The presentation says we should be open to changing our interpretation of passage if the evidence warrants that we should do so.
• Question 17
The presentation suggests that believers are not obligated to supply a Bible verse to support every argument in philosophy.
• Question 18
The presentation suggests that a neutral approach is unattainable because we all need a starting point for doing philosophy.
• Question 19
In the presentation, “critical usage” of scripture means:.
• Question 20
The word “philosophy” comes from a combination of two Greek terms. Give the meaning that goes along with each term.

(Set: 4)

Question 1
Philosophy is mostly interested in discovering new factual data.
Question 2
Philosophy and art are different in that philosophy argues for a view while art usually just expresses it.
Question 3
Philosophy evaluates everything including issues of faith.
Question 4
The goal in doing philosophy is to start as best as one can from a completely neutral position on every issue.
Question 5
Cultivating a worldview, as Foreman describes it, is something everyone has done
Question 6
The one below that is NOT one of the benefits described in the reading of examining and evaluating our beliefs:
Question 7
Philosophers largely agree on most issues. That is why they get along with each other so well.
Question 8
A process of education that forces students to think through and clarify their beliefs by asking them questions is called the:
Question 9
The five main reasons given in the reading for why developing the mindset in general includes all but the following:
Question 10
Philosophy aids theology by:
Question 11
To offer a defense for the Christian faith from outside attacks is the task of:
Question 12
According to the reading, it is possible to do hermeneutics without doing philosophy, however you never should.
Question 13
The problems listed in the reading with the view that “Christians don’t need philosophy, we have the Bible,” include the following:
Question 14
A principle of interpretation where one finds a principle in scripture and applies it to an example in current times.
Question 15
The presentation says we should be prepared to explain the literary and historical context of a passage of scripture if we are going to use that passage as support in an argument.
Question 16
The presentation says the Bible adequately addresses almost every philosophical issue and question.
Question 17
In the presentation, which of the following was NOT within the guidelines recommended for the “critical use” of scripture in doing philosophy:
Question 18
In the presentation, “critical usage” of scripture means:
Question 19
The presentation suggests that a neutral approach is unattainable because we all need a starting point for doing philosophy.
Question 20
The word “philosophy” comes from a combination of two Greek terms. Give the meaning that goes along with each term.
(Set: 5)

• Question 1
Which of the beliefs below would qualify as a foundational belief:
• Question 2
Philosophy and science are different in that:
• Question 3
It is possible to be completely rational and justified and still be wrong.
• Question 4
When I seek to know if a belief is true, I am performing the task of:
• Question 5
Philosophy evaluates everything including issues of faith.
• Question 6
Our epistemic obligations include the duty to clarify and justify our beliefs.
• Question 7
Adopting the philosophical mindset is more like a job than a vocation.
• Question 8
The ways in which philosophy is practical, according to the reading, include:
• Question 9
By saying worldview is coherent we mean that:
• Question 10
Bertrand Russell thought philosophy was important because:
• Question 11
How does Jesus affirm the importance of using reason:
• Question 12
The problems listed in the reading with the view that “Christians don’t need philosophy, we have the Bible,” include the following:
• Question 13
The passage that says we should always be prepared to offer a defense for the hope within us:
• Question 14
According to the reading, it is possible to do hermeneutics without doing philosophy, however you never should.
• Question 15
While we are not all called to be philosophers by vocation, what does the biblical mandate say we all called to do:
• Question 16
When I offer you my thought-out, well-reasoned belief about an issue, I am giving you my:
• Question 17
We raise a question in history class about whether or not it was right for President Lincoln to abuse his powers in suspending the writ of habeas corpus during the Civil War. Under which branch of philosophy would you place this discussion:
• Question 18
By “critical usage” of scripture is meant:
• Question 19
In the presentation we answered the misconception that there are no answers to most philosophical questions by saying:
• Question 20
The one below that is not one of the three major branches of philosophy:

(Set: 6)

Question 1
A statement about what a person ought to do is called:
Question 2
The study of biology would be considered a
Question 3
Which of the following are philosophers concerned about:
Question 4
Philosophy is more concerned with newly emerging concepts than with perennial, foundational issues.
Question 5
Philosophy is mostly interested in discovering new factual data.
Question 6
Bertrand Russell thought philosophy was important because:
Question 7
Cultivating a worldview, as Foreman describes it, is something everyone has done.
Question 8
What was Kierkegaard’s point about understanding life backward but living it forward:
Question 9
Choose the best answer: What is wrong with the following set of beliefs as a worldview: (a) There is no God, (b) Man evolved from lower animals over a long period of time, (c) there is no afterlife, (d) people should be good to each other, (e) matter and energy are all that exist, (f) the universe is without any ultimate meaning and value.
Question 10
By saying worldview is consistent we mean that:
Question 11
What was Paul doing in Col 2:
Question 12
The passage that says we should handle accurately the word of God:
Question 13
According to the reading, it is possible to do hermeneutics without doinq philosophy, however you never should.
Question 14
To offer a defense for the Christian faith from outside attacks is the task of:
Question 15
A supererogatory act:
Question 16
The branch of philosophy that deals with general theories of values is:
Question 17
According to the presentation, when dealing with a difficult text in the Bible, every alternative interpretation deserves equally serious consideration.
Question 18
Philosophers seldom agree on many issues.
Question 19
The question “What is truth?” is covered under which branch of philosophy:
Question 20
Which of the following was NOT within the guidelines recommended for the “critical use” of scripture in doinq philosophy:

(Set: 7)

• Question 1
According to the reading, Abraham was an example of blind faith.
• Question 2
The goal in doing philosophy is to start as best as one can from a completely neutral position on every issue.
• Question 3
It is possible to be completely rational and justified and still be wrong.
• Question 4
Which statement best expresses Socrates idea that the unexamined life is not worth living:
• Question 5
The word “philosophy” originated from two Greek terms: philo which means “love” and sophos which means:
• Question 6
By saying worldview is coherent we mean that:
• Question 7
The ways in which philosophy is practical, according to the reading, include:
• Question 8
Which of the following is true:
• Question 9
Bertrand Russell thought philosophy was important because:
• Question 10
Our epistemic obligations include the duty to clarify and justify our beliefs.
• Question 11
Philosophy aids evangelism specifically by:
• Question 12
How does Jesus affirm the importance of using reason:
• Question 13
The problems listed in the reading with the view that “Christians don’t need philosophy, we have the Bible,” include the following:
• Question 14
To offer a defense for the Christian faith from outside attacks is the task of:
• Question 15
The three elements listed in the reading that fulfill the biblical mandate to develop a Christian philosophical rnindset would include one of the following:
• Question 16
We raise a question in history class about whether or not it was right for President Lincoln to abuse his powers in suspending the writ of habeas corpus during the Civil War. Under which branch of philosophy would you place this discussion:
• Question 17
The sub-branch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of existence itself is:
• Question 18
Which of the following was NOT within the guidelines recommended for the “critical use” of scripture in doing philosophy:
• Question 19
The question about whether we can know if God exists or not is:
• Question 20
The Bible adequately addresses almost every philosophical issue and question.

(Set: 8)

Question 1 When I seek to know if a belief is true, I am performing the task of:
Question 2 Which of the beliefs below would qualify as a foundational belief:
Question 3 It is possible to be completely rational and justified and still be wrong.
Question 4 The word “philosophy” originated from two Greek terms: philo which means “love” and sophos which means:
Question 5 According to the reading, Abraham was an example of blind faith.
Question 6 The element of comprehensiveness means a worldview should account for every possible belief.
Question 7 A process of education that forces students to think through and clarify their beliefs by asking them questions is called the:
Question 8 Choose the best answer: What is wrong with the following set of beliefs as a worldview: (a) There is no God, (b) Man evolved from lower animals over a long period of time, (c) there is no afterlife, (d) people should be good to each other, (e) matter and energy are all that exist, (f) the universe is without any ultimate meaning and value.
Question 9 By saying worldview is coherent we mean that:
Question 10 Our intellectual appetite is a natural desire to know and understand.
Question 11 The science and art of interpreting scripture is called:
Question 12 According to the reading, it is possible to do hermeneutics without doing philosophy, however you never should.
Question 13 A supererogatory act:
Question 14 The three elements listed in the reading that fulfill the biblical mandate to develop a Christian philosophical mindset would include one of the following:
Question 15 Using scripture “strategically” means:
Question 16 By “critical usage” of scripture is meant:
Question 17 The one below that is not one of the three major branches of philosophy:
Question 18 We should be open to changing our interpretation of passage if the evidence warrants that we should do so.
Question 19 We raise a question in history class about whether or not it was right for President Lincoln to abuse his powers in suspending the writ of habeas corpus during the Civil War. Under which branch of philosophy would you place this discussion:
Question 20 The subbranch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of existence itself is:

(Set: 9)

Question 1 Philosophy and art are different in that philosophy argues for a view while art usually just expresses it.

Question 2 Which of the following is NOT one of the aspects of “critical thinking” according to the reading:

Question 3 According to the reading, Abraham was an example of blind faith.

Question 4 When I seek to know if a belief is true, I am performing the task of:

Question 5 The study of biology would be considered a

Question 6 Bertrand Russell thought philosophy was important because:

Question 7 The one below that is NOT one of the benefits described in the reading of examining and evaluating our beliefs:

Question 8 Choose the best answer: What is wrong with the following set of beliefs as a worldview: (a) There is no God, (b) Man evolved from lower animals over a long period of time, (c) there is no afterlife, (d) people should be good to each other, (e) matter and energy are all that exist, (f) the universe is without any ultimate meaning and value.

Question 9 Which of the following is true:

Question 10 An attitude of examining beliefs to determine what the mean and if they are true is called:

Question 11 A supererogatory act:

Question 12 Using scripture “strategically” means:

Question 13 To offer a defense for the Christian faith from outside attacks is the task of:

Question 14 According to the reading, it is possible to do hermeneutics without doing philosophy, however you never should.

Question 15 Philosophy aids theology by:

Question 16 The branch of philosophy that deals with general theories of values is:

Question 17 We should be prepared to explain the literary and historical context of a passage of scripture if we are going to use it as support in an argument.

Question 18 The Bible adequately addresses almost every philosophical issue and question.

Question 19 The one below that is not one of the three major branches of philosophy:

Question 20 By “critical usage” of scripture is meant:

(Set: 10)

Question 1 The goal in doing philosophy is to start as best as one can from a completely neutral position on every issue.

Question 2 Which of the following is NOT one of the aspects of “critical thinking” according to the reading:

Question 3 When I seek to know if a belief is true, I am performing the task of:

Question 4 A comprehensive system of beliefs that functions as an explanation and interpretation of reality is called:

Question 5 Which statement best expresses Socrates idea that the unexamined life is not worth living:

Question 6 The ways in which philosophy is practical, according to the reading, include:

Question 7 What was Kierkegaard’s point about understanding life backward but living it forward:

Question 8 Philosophers largely agree on most issues. That is why they get along with each other so well.

Question 9 The one below that is NOT one of the characteristics of good philosophical argument:

Question 10 A process of education that forces students to think through and clarify their beliefs by asking them questions is called the:

Question 11 While we are not all called to be philosophers by vocation, what does the biblical mandate say we all called to do:

Question 12 The passage that says we should always be prepared to offer a defense for the hope within us:

Question 13 Philosophy aids theology by:

Question 14 Prooftexting is often a legitimate way to use scripture.

Question 15 What was Paul doing in Col 2:.

Question 16 The question of the existence of God comes under which branch of philosophy:

Question 17 The subbranch of metaphysics that deals with the nature of existence itself is:

Question 18 According to the presentation, when dealing with a difficult text in the Bible, every alternative interpretation deserves equally serious consideration.

Question 19 Philosophers seldom agree on many issues.

Question 20 We begin with a debate about the problem of evil and I suggest that one solution to the problem is that free will makes evil possible. You question whether we have free will or not and we get into a discussion of the reality of free will. Under what branch of philosophy would you place our discussion now?

(Set: 11)

Question 1 Philosophy is more concerned with newly emerging concepts than with perennial, foundational issues.

Question 2 Philosophy and art are different in that philosophy argues for a view while art usually just expresses it

Question 3 Scientism is defined as the use of the methods of establishing scientific theories.

Question 4 A statement about what a person ought to do is called

Question 5 The word “philosophy” originated from two Greek terms: philo which means “love” and sophos which means

Question 6 The one below that is NOT one of the characteristics of good philosophical argument

Question 7 Cultivating a worldview, as Foreman describes it, is something everyone has done

Question 8 The main way mentioned in the reading that the philosophical mindset helps in making moral decisions by

Question 9 Philosophers largely agree on most issues. That is why they get along with each other so well

Question 10 What should one do if one encounters a new belief that creates inconsistency in a one’s set of beliefs:

Question 11 Prooftexting is often a legitimate way to use scripture

Question 12 While we are not all called to be philosophers by vocation, what does the biblical mandate say we all called to do

Question 13 A principle of interpretation where one finds a principle in scripture and applies it to an example in current times

Question 14 A supererogatory act

Question 15 Using scripture “strategically” means

Question 16 When I offer you my thought-out, well-reasoned belief about an issue, I am giving you my

Question 17 The one below that is not one of the three major branches of philosophy

Question 18 We raise a question in history class about whether or not it was right for President Lincoln to abuse his powers in suspending the writ of habeas corpus during the Civil War. Under which branch of philosophy would you place this discussion

Question 19 By “critical usage” of scripture is meant

Question 20 Philosophy is about asking questions of which there are no real answers

(Set: 12)

Question 1 Which of the beliefs below would qualify as a foundational belief:

Question 2 Reason is “prior” to God in terms of:

Question 3 Which of the following is NOT one of the aspects of “critical thinking” according to the reading:

Question 4 A comprehensive system of beliefs that functions as an explanation and interpretation of reality is called:

Question 5 The relationship between propositional knowledge and experiential knowledge is:

Question 6 Choose the best answer: What is wrong with the following set of beliefs as a worldview: (a) There is no God, (b) Man evolved from lower animals over a long period of time, (c) there is no afterlife, (d) people should be good to each other, (e) matter and energy are all that exist, (f) the universe is without any ultimate meaning and value.

Question 7 Adopting the philosophical mindset is more like a job than a vocation.

Question 8 Our epistemic obligations include the duty to clarify and justify our beliefs.

Question 9 Which of the following is true:

Question 10 Bertrand Russell thought philosophy was important because:

Question 11 The three elements listed in the reading that fulfill the biblical mandate to develop a Christian philosophical mindset would include one of the following:

Question 12 The passage of scripture that says we should beware of vain and deceptive philosophy is:

Question 13 According to the reading, it is possible to do hermeneutics without doing philosophy, however you never should.

Question 14 How does the story in Acts 17 demonstrate the value of reason:

Question 15 To offer a defense for the Christian faith from outside attacks is the task of:

Question 16 The Bible adequately addresses almost every philosophical issue and question.

Question 17 We should be prepared to explain the literary and historical context of a passage of scripture if we are going to use it as support in an argument.

Question 19 The one below that is not one of the three major branches of philosophy:

Question 20 Philosophy is about asking questions of which there are no real answers.

Quiz 1 PHIL201

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Enemies And Spies homework help

February 2, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Enemies And Spies homework help

Entwistle asserts: “those with whom we disagree often have things to teach us… [we must] ask ourselves what is to be learned and appreciated” from those with whom we disagree. Identify at least 3 things that you appreciate/can learn from those who hold the secular combatants’ or Christian combatants’ versions of the Enemies model.

At present, there are probably around seven billion or so people on Earth. With that many people living here, it is reasonable to believe that not everyone will share the same opinion on any given subject; to assume otherwise would simply be erroneous. With that said, it also means that there is something to learn or appreciate form everyone, even if they hold to different models of integration. While this may not be a recommended integrative model of psychology to hold, it is still one that has influence over a number of conservative Christians, and as their brothers and sister in Christ who happen to be in the 3field of psychology, we owe it to them to develop an understanding of what perspective they are bringing to the table, how to interact with it, and what we can learn from it; this done in humility.

Within the field of psychology and particularly the practice of counseling, one of the biggest goals is to see a client thrive and overcome their mental illness, situation, or learn how to manage it successfully. Simply put, healing, restoration, and growth are the goals. However, sometimes that does not happen; sometimes, as with the case of a suicidal client, they die. This was the case that the pastors of Gospel Community Church faced back in 1980, when one of their young congregants died by suicide after trying to reach out for help from the church and a local doctor (Entwistle, 208, 2015). This resulted in a series of lawsuits from the parents who felt that clergy negligence was to blame (Entwistle, 208, 2015). They believed their son did not receive the best treatment available to him because they told him that his suicidal thoughts were a sin problem as opposed to a mental health problem, in addition to telling him that he would not go to Hell if he died by suicide (Entwistle, 208, 2015). There is a lot that can be said and learned from this case but, ultimately, one of the biggest takeaways from this is that not every client will benefit from the style of counseling offered that stems from our chosen model of integration. In this case, this style of counseling was a direct result of the Christian combatant version of the Enemies model. Here, it was seen that the client did not ultimately benefit from this style. Now, we cannot possibly know what was said in every counseling session or how it was received by the client, but it is known that when someone is suicidal, they are vulnerable to rationalizing, justifying, or even romanticizing suicide. Because of this, it would be wise to be aware of how they might interpret what is said to them. I am not sure on what would have been the best way of phrasing that, though. Regardless, one of the biggest takeaways here was that it might be wise to recognize how our models of integration influence our counseling style; we need to recognize that not every client will benefit from that.

Another observation made in the reading was seeing an example of what happens when someone chooses to build an entire career of this model, refusing to engage anyone who might have a varying view on the merits of psychology or an appropriate way theology and psychology might interact. This was made evident in the text when Mack declared that psychology had nothing to offer (Enwistle, 204, 2015). At the end of the day, one of the hallmarks of a solid faith leader or Christian counselor is the ability to grow as they go deeper on their walk with the Lord and they reflect more of Christ as a result. What is seen in the Enemies model is what happens when people are unwilling to reach across the aisle and have constructive dialogue; they exist in a vacuum, eventually believing that everyone else is simply wrong.

One final thing that can be appreciated from the Christian combatants is understanding that there is a history here between the two fields. In some regards, it is understandable how one might come to the conclusion that psychology is a hallow substitute for what the Bible might offer — there were times when psychologists’ worldviews led them to cast a negative light on Christianity and faith in general, Freud being a prime example. He called it neurotic, saying that it was something that mankind needed to outgrow as religion belonged in the ancient past, not modern 20th-century (Entwistle, 208, 2015). Unsurprisingly, Christians of that era did not respond well to their secular counterparts. With this in mind as a historical backdrop of the 20th-century allows for more understanding as to why this model developed and what may have led to it catching on among conservative Christians.

At the end of the day, both Christians and phycologists or counselors of all – or no – faiths benefit from the study of models of integration. Of course, to get a better understanding of how they operate and how their beliefs influence the model they hold to, but also to gain an appreciation for how other people have arrived at their chosen models and what we might be able to learn from them as a result.

Enwistle, N. D., (2015). Integrative approaches to psychology and Christianity: An introduction to worldview issues, philosophical foundations, and models of integration, 3rd edition. Cascade Books, Eugene, Oregon.

Topic: Allies and Transformational Psychology

Question/Prompt: Choose 1 of the prompts below on which to comment.

Entwistle noted that “theological reflection typically focuses more on God’s workings in the world,” while “psychological reflection typically focuses more on the workings of God’s world.” What implications does this have for the relationship between psychology and Christianity?

Each model of integration has some interpretation of how they interact with the two book concept. That is, one book is the Word of God, and the other is the Work of God (Enwistle, 2015). Each model has their own way of doing so, whether it be holding them at differing value, or rejecting one book all together. The Allies and Transformational Psychology models, however, do not reject with book. In fact, they se them as equal, yet different perspectives on truth, with the understanding that all truth is derived from God (Enwistle, 2015). This is where Enwistle’s observation comes in. Psychology looking to understand more of the working of God’s world reflects the intention to understand one of the books, God’s Work, which also constitutes subject matter such as science, is all about what God has created and how it works. It is not meant to be in contradiction to God’s Word, but they are both meant to be part of the larger story that is being told.

The implications these statements have on the relationship between psychology and Christianity can be found expressed through the integration models of Allies and Transformational Psychology. Each model recognizes that both the Word of God and the Work of God represent two distinctive, yet equal books containing truth. They each interact with this notion on somewhat different levels, though. For instance, the Transformational Psychology model fuses the two books together in the pursuit of oneness while the Allies model looks at the two books as distinct, equal, and providing different perspectives.

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SOCW 6311 & 6070 Wk 2 Responses homework help

February 2, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

SOCW 6311 & 6070 Wk 2 Responses homework help

**Each Response needs to be 1/2 page in length with at least 1 reference**

RESPONSE 1

Respond to two colleagues by doing all of the following:

· Identify strengths of your colleagues’ analyses and areas in which the analyses could be improved. Address his or her evaluation of the efficacy and applicability of the evidence-based practice, his or her identification of factors that could support or hinder the implementation of the evidence-based practice, and his or her solution for mitigating those factors.

· Offer additional insight to your colleagues by either identifying additional factors that may support or limit implementation of the evidence-based practice or an alternative solution for mitigating one of the limitations that your colleagues identified.

Colleague 1: Jared

Post an evaluation of the evidence-based practice that you selected for Jake. Describe the practice and the evidence supporting it. Explain why you think this intervention is appropriate for Jake.

In the case video (Laureate Education, 2013c), the supervisor discusses the value of meeting a client first before selecting a treatment. I wholeheartedly agree with this. Some of the practices such as meditation and yoga that the social worker suggested could be offensive to the client (I ran into this situation during my first practicum). Further, what works for one client well may not work well for another client, despite there being studies that were able to show a benefit for study participants. Indeed, a hallmark of evidence-based practice is a combination of research, clinical expertise and client values (Wampold & Imel, 2015). For client values and clinical expertise to be applied, one must first meet the client and build a trusting relationship where pertinent things about the client can be discovered.

Because there is a lack of information in the case video about the client (Laureate Education, 2013), I am prevented from having a good explanation of why any intervention is appropriate beyond that which the research states is an effective intervention for veterans with post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD). Thus, based on this limited amount of information, I would select Seeking Safety as the evidence-based practice for Jake. Seeking Safety is an intervention listed in the National Registry for Evidence-Based Practices and Programs for treating trauma, among other things such as substance abuse. In fact, its dual focus is one of the hallmarks of the treatment as substance abuse often accompanies trauma (Najavitas, 2003).

There are some essential things that must be focused on when treating someone with trauma. For instance, it is important to normalize one’s experience of PTSD symptoms (DeCarvalho & Whealin, 2012). Seeking Safety begins with psychoeducation to normalize ones experience and educate one on what is happening or why they are experiencing the things they are experiencing (Najavitas, 2003). While it is true that we do not know if Jake has a drug issue, Seeking Safety with its focus on treating substance use, it would either treat Jakes substance issue, or it would provide him the tools to stay drug-free. With PTSD, there are many symptoms such as a tendency to isolate (American Psychiatric Association, 2013). Seeking Safety specifically works on treating PTSD symptoms and would help Jake with managing anxiety, difficulties with the interpersonal (Najavitis, 2003) and other factors that would affect functioning in life (Najavitis, n.d.). Indeed, while Seeking Safety does help those with PTSD, it does so by focusing on solutions and building social supports instead of diving into the trauma narrative (Desai, Harpaz-Rotem, Najavitas, & Rosenheck, 2008). Lastly, Seeking Safety has been specifically studied in the veteran population which increases the validity of this method with another veteran (Najavitas & Hien, 2013; Lenz, Henesy, & Callender, 2016). Thus, based on what little is know about Jake from the case video, Seeking Safety appears to be a safe choice of an intervention to treat Jake.

Then provide an explanation for the supervisor regarding issues related to implementation.

There should not be an issues related to implementation. Seeking Safety can be administered on a one to one or group basis (The California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare, 2018). Of course, there are many unknowns about Jake. Thus, issues could arise once more information is known about Jake.

Identify two factors that you believe are necessary for successful implementation of the evidence-based practice and explain why. Then, identify two factors that you believe may hinder implementation and explain how you might mitigate these factors.

Seeking Safety is an easy intervention to implement. During my first 500 hour practicum, I led a Seeking Safety group. However, in the beginning, I had no manual and was forced to use that which I could find for free until the agency ordered me the manual. I was allowed great liberty with what was taught until I received the manual. However, I would suggest that having a manual is extremely beneficial to successfully implementing the practice. After all, the research was done on participants who sat under the treatment that was led by the manual. Thus, while some benefit would occur by covering the topics of the program, it likely would be hindered by not covering the material appropriately. Another factor that could affect implementation is the setting of the implementation. Seeking safety definitely could be implemented on a one to one basis. However, I feel that it can be implemented better in a group. This adds benefit to aspects of the intervention where discussion of the clients are prompted.

References

American Psychiatric Association. (2013). Diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders: DSM-5 (5th ed.). Arlington, VA: Author.

The California Evidence-Based Clearinghouse for Child Welfare. (2018). Seeking Safety for adults. Retrieved from http://www.cebc4cw.org/program/seeking-safety-for-adults/

DeCarvalho, L. T., & Whealin, J. M. (2012). Healing stress in military families: Eight steps to wellness. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley et Sons.

Lenz, A. S., Henesy, R., & Callender, K. (2016). Effectiveness of seeking safety for co-occurring posttraumatic stress disorder and substance use. Journal of Counseling & Development, 94(1), 51-61. doi:10.1002/jcad.12061

Najavitis, L. M. (n.d.). Implementing Seeking Safety therapy for PTSD and substance abuse:. Illinois Department of Human Services’ Office of Alcoholism and Substance Abuse. Retrieved from http://www.bhrm.org/media/pdf/guidelines/PTSD.pdf

Najavitis, L. M. (2003). Seeking safety: A treatment manual for PTSD and substance abuse. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Najavitis, L. M., & Hien, D. (2013). Helping vulnerable populations: A comprehensive review of the treatment outcome literature on substance use disorder and PTSD. Journal of Clinical Psychology, 69(5), 433-479. doi:10.1002/jclp.21980

Wampold, B. E., & Imel, Z. E. (2015). The great psychotherapy debate: The evidence for what makes psychotherapy work. Retrieved from https://books.google.com

Colleague 2: Kamran

Jake is a 31-year-old married veteran, he experienced and witnessed a traumatic event on a deployment to Iraq one year ago. Jake is currently taking the medication Paxil for his Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) symptoms. He has difficulty sleeping, heart palpitations, and moodiness. He is drinking alcohol heavily to avoid dealing with his feelings which is negatively affecting his marriage, children, and employment (Plummer, Makris & Brockson, 2014).

The evidenced-based intervention that I selected for Jake that I believe would be effective for him was Cognitive Processing Therapy (CPT), This practice will focus on the client’s avoidance of painful memories or reminders that prevents an actual processing of the past traumatic memory. He may be harboring false beliefs about the causes and results of the trauma which are creating strong negative emotions. CPT for PTSD is primarily a cognitive therapy. The therapy will first focus on distorted beliefs about the trauma he experienced such as denial and self-blame. Then throughout this process, clients are taught to challenge their beliefs and assumptions through Socratic questioning and the use of daily worksheets. Once dysfunctional beliefs are deconstructed, more balanced self-statements are generated and practiced. It may help him to write detailed accounts of the most traumatic incidents during his deployment. The goal in CPT is that clients learn to make sense of their trauma and incorporate this understanding into their beliefs about themselves, others, and the world in a balanced way. Treatment can be delivered in individual or group format conducted by social workers, psychologists, psychiatrists, and other mental health therapists licensed to provide psychotherapy. (SAMHSA, n.d).

An explanation I would give to the supervisor regarding the implementation of CPT is that I would educate my supervisor that this treatment is not new or experimental and has roots dating back to the 1980’s. and has been confirmed effective by evidence-based research. The other factor to note about the intervention is that first implementation would be simple and straightforward because the intervention could be done by the social worker without having to pay for copyright use or learning specific skills. Treatment consists of typically 12 sessions (range 10-15) conducted once or twice weekly for 60 minutes each (90 minutes in a group setting (SAMHSA, n.d). I would also mention a supporting study using CPT for PTSD was conducted using treatment-seeking veterans with military-related PTSD from Australia who was randomly allocated to receive 12 twice-weekly 60-minute sessions of CPT individually and in a group setting, demonstrated significant improvement scores from baseline to posttreatment (Forbes et al., 2012), (Laureate Education, 2013c).

The two factors that I believe may hinder implementation of CBT in the Jake Levy case is his cooperation and making sure that he attends both the individual and group components of the intervention. I would try to stress the importance of total compliance with the program for it to be effective. Along with that, I would have to be aware of the adverse effects related to CPT which may include mild to moderate increases in PTSD symptoms, anxiety, depression, and distress when the client begins to focus on his trauma. Based on research findings, on average, clients do not report a worsening of symptoms after starting CPT, and any worsening that does occur is generally short-lived (SAMHSA, n.d).

References

Forbes, D., Lloyd, D., Nixon, R. D. V., Elliot, P., Varker, T., Perry, D., Bryant, R. A., & Creamer, M. (2012). A multisite randomized controlled effectiveness trial of cognitive processing therapy for the military-related posttraumatic stress disorder. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 26, 442–452.

Laureate Education (Producer). (2013c). Levy family episode 2 [Video file]. Retrieved from https://class.waldenu.edu

Plummer S.B, Makris S.., & Brockson S.M. (2014) Sessions: Case Histories. “The Levy Family”. Laureate International Universities Publishing, Inc.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (n.d.) NREPP: SAMHSA’s registry of evidence-based practices and programs. Retrieved June 5, 2018, from https://www.nrepp.samhsa.gov

RESPONSE 2

Respond to two colleagues in one of the following ways:

· Compare the greatest challenge your colleague has identified to the one you posted.

· Explain whether you think your colleague’s strategy for addressing the situation is likely to be effective and why.

Colleague 1: Angela

Analysis of the supervisor’s role in the Phoenix House

The supervisor has the role of supervising four full-time social workers and two social work interns from a local university. The supervisor’s role is more of a leadership role vs a management role. She is charged with ensuring staff are performing to goals of the program. She is also charged with training and mentoring personnel as she has oversight of two interns. Lauffer explains, leadership focuses on the individual traits of those people identified as leaders while management focuses on contexts, including the design of work systems and the organizational arrangements in the workplace. (Lauffer, 2011, pg. 245).

Leadership skills that might help the supervisor resolve the issue.

The issue is a child, Daniel has been placed in the program by his mother. The mother leans Daniel had no knowledge of how drugs got into his back pack, but the mother wants to teach a lesson of consequences. It has been bought to the mother attention the purpose of the program, but the mother insist Daniel remain in the program. The mothers insistence is regardless of staff advice the program may not be a good fit for the program which can cause him more harm than good.

Northouse explains, skilled leaders are competent people who know the means and methods for carrying out their responsibilities (Northouse, 2018, pg. 5). Skills that may help the supervisor with this issue are administrative skills, interpersonal skills and conceptual skills. With administrative skills the supervisor can offer technical competence by providing the mother with competent knowledge and statics of the effects on children when placed in programs that are not a good fit for them. With good interpersonal skills help Daniel with communicating to his mother what really happened at school with the marijuana, in addition the ability to communicate with the mother. Conceptual skills assist with problem solving while understanding the parents fears, assist with an alternate plan to help Daniel and satisfy the mother.

Most challenging aspect of this situation

The challenging aspect of this situation is telling a parent about raising their child and this action may cause harm when the parent feels they are doing what is right. The parent in this situation wants to teach the child a lesson, although he has done nothing wrong.

If I were the supervisor in this case

In this situation administrative skills, interpersonal skills and conceptual skills are very important to get the parent to hear you with putting them in defense mode. Most parents think they are doing what is best for their child. Interpersonal skills provide the ability to communicate from a level within yourself which is inviting and understanding. As the cliché goes, “it’s not what you say it’s how you say it”. I would help the mother understand, yes there are consequences for our actions, but do we want Daniel to learn there are consequences even when you’re not wrong. I would ask her to allow the message to fit punishment. In this case Daniel is receiving punishment for something he adamant that he did not do. The long-term effects of placing Daniel in this program may not be what was desired.

References:

Lauffer, A. (2011). Understanding Your Social Agency, 3rd Edition. [MBS Direct]. Retrieved from https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781452239460/

Northouse, P. G. (2018). Introduction to Leadership: Concepts and Practice, 4th Edition. [MBS Direct]. Retrieved from https://mbsdirect.vitalsource.com/#/books/9781506378350/

Plummer, S.-B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. M. (Eds.). (2014b). Social work case studies: Concentration year. Baltimore, MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing [Vital Source e-reader]. “Social Work Supervision, Leadership, and Administration: The Phoenix House” (pp. 82–84)

Colleague 2: Sandra

An analysis of the supervisor’s role in the Phoenix House case studies and identify leadership skills that might help the supervisor resolve the issue.

This is a very touching story Daniel has been placed in a program that appears to do more harm than good. His mother Lisa doesn’t understand that in order to be in a program like Phoenix House the student must be on the point of throwing out or on long-term suspension from their school, usually due to disciplinary issues. A good supervisor must be able to lead as well as listened to the ones she supervises in order to get an in-depth of any issues that may arise with the students.

As the supervisor, I believe she must have good leadership skill and management as well. In her leadership role, she can lead as well as learn from her followers (Northouse, 2013). She did the appropriate thing by respecting her followers (Social workers and interns). Leadership comprises of attention to mutual goals. Leaders direct their energies toward individuals who are trying to achieve something together (Northouse, 2013).

In this case, the supervisor and her followers are working together to make changes for Daniel and to get his mother to understand that his placement at Phoenix House is not a good fit for him. Rost, 1991, believes that it also increases the possibility that leaders and followers wiJI work together toward a common good. When consideration is given to common goals this gives leadership an ethical implication because it stresses the need for leaders to work with followers to achieve particular goals.

Identify which aspect of this situation would be most challenging for you if you were the supervisor.

The part of this situation that would be more challenging for me is to get Daniel’s mother to understand why the program is going to do more harm to Daniel than good because it appears she really believes that where he belongs. Whenever an individual is so strong in their belief it is harder to bring something across to them. The hardest part is that his mother (Lisa), does not understand the nature of the program.

Finally, explain how you would use leadership skills to proceed if you were the supervisor.

I would use leadership and power to influence Lisa. People have power when they have the ability to affect others’ beliefs, attitudes, and courses of action (Northouse, 2013). By doing this, I would be using the resource of power to effect change in others. As the supervisor, I believe that I possess the two power that most organization have which is position power and personal power. My personal power is the ability I have to make an impact on people. Position power is the role that I have in the company as a supervisor combining these two I am bound to make an impact on Lisa.

References

Northouse, P., G., (2013), Leadership. Theory and Practice (6th. Ed). Los Angeles. Sage Publications

Chapter 1 “Introduction” (PP. 1 -17)

Northouse, P. G. (2018). Introduction to leadership: Concepts and practice (4th Ed.). Washington, DC: Sage.

o Chapter 1, “Understanding Leadership” (pp. 1–18)

Plummer, S.-B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. M. (Eds.). (2014b). Social work case studies: Concentration year. Baltimore, MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing [Vital Source e-reader].

“Social Work Supervision, Leadership, and Administration: The Phoenix House” (pp. 82–84)

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Psychoanalytic-Social Personality Perspective homework help

February 2, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Psychoanalytic-Social Personality Perspective homework help

Psychoanalytic-Social Personality Perspective

Running head: PSYCHOANALYTIC-SOCIAL PERSONALITY PERSPECTIVE

PSYCHOANALYTIC-SOCIAL PERSONALITY PERSPECTIVE

Psychoanalytic-Social Personality Perspective

What makes the psychoanalytic-social perspective of personality unique?

Our personality is who we are, who we become. Personality is a major interest within study of psychology because it can be used to better understand who people are. It helps us understand why people react differently in same situations, as well as the consistency of their responses. A simple breakdown shows that the Psychoanalytic social theory was created upon the theory that cultural and social conditions, particularly the various experiences one would have during their childhood, play a big role in shaping a person’s personality. Those who did not have their needs for love and affection fulfilled during their childhood develop some sort of aggression toward their parents, because of this aggression they could develop some level of anxiety. It could be an understood culture that is not controlled by any sort of cultural values, but this could be a hard task to complete. “Erikson envisioned a psychoanalytic approach that would consider social and cultural realities rather than focusing exclusively on the individual, as Freud had done. James Cote and Charles Levine have developed such a psychoanalytic social psychology in their research and theorizing” (Cloninger, 2013).

What are the main components of each of the psychoanalytic-social personality theories? What are some of the main differences between theories?

The psychoanalytic-social personality theories are composed of the individual psychological theory, psychosocial development, and interpersonal psychoanalytic theory. In the individual psychological theory, Alder proposed that people should be characterized by a social perspective, and not biological. In other words, Alder argued that we should focus on a person’s individual goals and how it shapes an individual. Adler’s inferiority complex is a concept that a person is overcome with a feeling of lack of self-worth. This suggest that each person has a felt minus, since all people began life as a newborn, inferior to others and relying on the needs of others for their survival. Any short comings may encourage an individual to excel further to achieve their desire outcome the “aggressive drive”. Likewise, Erikson’s psychosocial development theory argues that a person develops based on its culture or society. The main components of this theory are the psychosocial stages which incorporate culture starting from infancy. Erikson further explains his theory with the epigenetic principle, which states that psychosocial development based on a biological model. Karen Horney’s psychoanalytic-social personality theory’s main components consist of neurosis and psychoanalysis involving inner conflicts. Langenderfer (1999), “The personality she gave is an example of children and how parents as well as other socializing factors influence their personality. For instance, a normal child goes through life having certain characteristics of themselves when relating experiences with school, hobbies, and home. However, when looking at a child that is neurotic the environmental factors isolates their true self.” Horney believes that Freud’s theory about sexuality and continuous compulsives, is interfering with an individual, the family, and social factors where there is organization of values, and attitudes. Freud believes they are compulsive drives from nature, involving every human being. She believes they are compulsive drives but become neurotic by a human feeling isolated, helpless, afraid, and hostile.

Choose one of the psychoanalytic-social personality theories, and apply it to your own life. Explain your own personality and personality development through this theory.

Erikson’s eight stages of the life cycle is the most intriguing to myself. McLeod (2013), “According to Erikson, the ego develops as it successfully resolves crises that are distinctly social in nature. These involve establishing a sense of trust in others, developing a sense of identity in society, and helping the next generation prepare for the future”. As you progress through the life cycle, you encounter different events that influence your personality over time. Completing a stage successfully results in a healthy personality. Whereas failure to complete a stage results in a reduced ability to complete the future stages. Growing up my parents set expectations for me based off my age. Every life lesson I was taught was so that I would be able to successfully make it to the next life cycle. Because of the guidance I received from my parents, I didn’t encounter all of the crisis described in Erikson’s life cycles. The next life cycle for myself is Generativity vs Stagnation. I can achieve the virtue of care by giving back to society, being productive at work, and becoming involved in the community. From the experiences of my past, I can create a wonderful future with a healthy personality.

References

Cloninger, S. C. (2013). Theories of Personality: Understand Persons (6th ed.). : .

Langenderfer, G. (1999). Karen Horney. Retrieved from http://muskingum.edu/~psych/psycweb/history/horney.htm

McLeod, S. (2013). Erik Erikson. Retrieved from http://www.simplypsychology.org/Erik-Erikson.html

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Psychology Review Questions homework help

February 2, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Psychology Review Questions homework help

Complete the following exercises from “Review Questions” located at the end of each chapter and put them into a Word document to be submitted as directed by the instructor.

Chapter 1, numbers 1.8 and 1.9

Chapter 2, numbers 2.14, 2.17, and 2.18

Chapter 3, numbers 3.13, 3.14, 3.18, and 3.19

Chapter 4, numbers 4.9, 4.14, 4.17, and 4.19

Show all relevant work; use the equation editor in Microsoft Word when necessary.

1.8 Indicate whether each of the following studies is an experiment or an observational study. If it is an experiment, identify the independent vari-able and note any possible confounding variables.

(a) A psychologist uses chimpanzees to test the notion that more crowded living conditions trigger aggressive behavior. Chimps are placed, accord-ing to an impartial assignment rule, in cages with either one, several, or many other chimps. Subsequently, during a standard observation period, each chimp is assigned a score based on its aggressive behavior toward a chimplike stuffed doll.

(b) An investigator wishes to test whether, when compared with recognized, professional scientists, recognized, professional artists tend to be born under different astrological signs.

(c) To determine whether there is a relationship between the sexual codes of primitive tribes and their behavior toward neighboring tribes, an anthro-pologist consults available records, classifying each tribe on the basis of its sexual codes (permissive or repressive) and its behavior toward neigh-boring tribes (friendly or hostile).

(d) In a study of group problem solving, an investigator assigns college stu-dents to groups of two, three, or four students and measures the amount of time required by each group to solve a complex puzzle.

(e) A school psychologist wishes to determine whether reading comprehension scores are related to the number of months of formal education, as reported on school transcripts, for a group of 12-year-old migrant children. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. REVIEW QUESTIONS 23

(f) To determine whether Graduate Record Exam (GRE) scores can be increased by cramming, an investigator allows college students to choose to participate in either a GRE test-taking workshop or a control (non-test-taking) workshop and then compares the GRE scores earned subsequently by the two groups of students.

(g) A social scientist wishes to determine whether there is a relationship between the attractiveness scores (on a 100-point scale) assigned to college students by a panel of peers and their scores on a paper-and-pencil test of anxiety.

(h) A political scientist wishes to determine whether males and females differ with respect to their attitudes toward defense spending by the federal

government. She asks each person if he or she thinks that the current level of defense spending should be increased, remain the same, or be decreased.

1.9 Recent studies, as summarized, for example, in E. Mortensen et al. (2002). The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287 , 2365–2371, suggest that breast-feeding of infants may increase their subsequent cognitive ((IQ) development. Both experiments and observational studies are cited. (a ) What determines whether some of these studies are experiments? (b) Name at least two potential confounding variables controlled by breast-feeding experiments. 1.10 If you have not done so already, familiarize yourself with the various appendices in this book. (a) Particularly note the location of Appendix B (Answers to Selected Ques-tions) and Appendix D (Glossary). (b) Browse through Appendix A (Math Review). If this material looks unfamil-iar, study Appendix A and use the self-diagnostic tests as your guides. Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

(g) A social scientist wishes to determine whether there is a relationship between the attractiveness scores (on a 100-point scale) assigned to col-lege students by a panel of peers and their scores on a paper-and-pencil test of anxiety.

(h) A political scientist wishes to determine whether males and females differ with respect to their attitudes toward defense spending by the federal government. She asks each person if he or she thinks that the current level of defense spending should be increased, remain the same, or be decreased.

1.9 Recent studies, as summarized, for example, in E. Mortensen et al. (2002). The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287 , 2365–2371, suggest that breast-feeding of infants may increase their subsequent cognitive ((IQ) development. Both experiments and observational studies are cited.

(a ) What determines whether some of these studies are experiments? (b) Name at least two potential confounding variables controlled by breast-feeding experiments.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 2.14

(a) Construct a frequency distribution for the number of difference residences occupied by graduating seniors during their college career, namely

1, 4, 2, 3, 3, 1, 6, 7, 4, 3, 3, 9, 2, 4, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 4, 2, 3, 3, 5

(b) What is the shape of this distribution?

2.15 The number of friends reported by Facebook users is summarized in the following frequency distribution:

FRIENDS f

f400 – above 2

350 – 399 5

300 – 349 12

250 – 299 17

200 – 249 23

150 – 199 49

100 – 149 27

50 – 99 29

0 – 49 36

Total 200

(a) What is the shape of this distribution?

(b) Find the relative frequencies.

(d) Why would it not be possible to convert to a stem and leaf display?

2.16

Assume that student volunteers were assigned arbitrarily (according to a coin toss) either to be trained to meditate or to behave as usual. To deter-mine whether meditation training (the independent variable) inﬂuences GPAs (the dependent variable), GPAs were calculated for each student at the end of the one-year experiment, yielding these results for the two groups:

NONMEDITATORS

3.67 3.79 3.00

2.50 2.75 1.90

2.80 2.65 2.58

2.83 3.10 3.37

3.25 2.76 2.86

2.90 2.10 2.66

2.34 3.20 2.67

3.59 3.00 3.08

MEDITATORS

3.57 2.45 3.75

3.50 2.67 2.90

2.95 3.30 3.56

3.56 3.78 3.75

3.45 3.00 3.35

3.10 2.75 3.09

2.58 2.95 3.56

3.30 3.43 3.47

DESCRIBING DATA WITH TABLES AND GRAPHS

(a) What is the unit of measurement for these data?

(b) Construct separate frequency distributions for meditators and for non-meditators. (First, construct the frequency distribution for the group having the larger range. Then, to facilitate comparisons, use the same set of classes for the other frequency distribution.)

(c) Do the two groups tend to differ? (Eventually, tools from inferential statistics, as described in Part 2, will help you decide whether any apparent difference between the two groups probably is real or merely transitory, that is, attributable to variability or chance. See Review Question 14.15 on page 324.)

*2.17 Are there any conspicuous differences between the two distributions in the following table (one reﬂecting the ages of all residents of a small town and the other reﬂecting the ages of all U.S. residents)?

(a) To help make the desired comparison, convert the frequencies ( f ) for the small town to percentages.

(b) Describe any seemingly conspicuous differences between the two distributions.

TWO AGE DISTRIBUTIONS

U.S. POPULATION (2010) (%)13,5,6,7,7,7,7,6,7,7,7,7,7, population Total-100%

AGE 65–above 60-64,55-59,50-54,45-49,40-44,65-39,30-34,25-29,20-24,15-19,

10-14,5-9,0-4

SMALL TOWN f 105,53,45,40,44,38,31,27,25,20,20,19,17,16 TOTAL 500

NOTE: The top class (65–above) has no upper boundary. Although less preferred, as discussed previously, this type of open-ended class is employed as a space-saving device when, as in the Statistical Abstract of the United States, many different tables must be listed. Source: 2012 Statistical Abstract of the United States.Copyright © 2015 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

REVIEW QUESTIONS 55 (c) Using just one graph, construct frequency polygons for the two relative frequency distributions. NOTE: When segmenting the horizontal axis, assign the same width to the open-ended interval (65–above) as to any other class interval. (This tactic causes some distortion at the upper end of the histogram, since one class interval is doing the work of several. Nothing is free, including the convenience of open-ended intervals.)

2.18 The following table shows distributions of bachelor’s degrees earned in 2005–2006 for selected ﬁelds of study by all male graduates and by all female graduates.

(a) How many female psychology majors graduated in 2005–2006?

(b) Since the total numbers of male and female graduates are fairly different— 504,600 and 676,000—it is helpful to convert ﬁ rst to relative frequencies before making comparisons between male and female graduates. Then, inspect these relative frequencies and note what appear to be the most conspicuous differences between male and female graduates.

(d) Using just one graph, construct bar graphs for all male graduates and for all female graduates. Hint: Alternate shaded and unshaded bars for males and females, respectively.

BACHELOR’S DEGREES EARNED IN 2005–2006

BY SELECTED FIELD OF STUDY AND GENDER

(IN THOUSANDS)

MAJOR FIELD OF STUDY

MALES 159.7 80.8 12.9 19.9 67.0 26.7 32.1 51.2 28.1 37.7 17.3 Tot.504.6

FEMALES158.4 80.7 79.1 68.3 14.6 42.5 51.2 48.8 9.8 37.8 Tot.676.0

Business

Social sciences

Education Health

Sciences

Psychology

Engineering

Life sciences

Fine arts

Communications

Computer sciences

English 17.3 37.8 Total 504.6 676.0

3.14 The mean serves as the balance point for any distribution because the sum of all scores, expressed as positive and negative distances from the mean, always equals zero.

(a) Show that the mean possesses this property for the following set of scores: 3, 6, 2, 0, 4.

(b) Satisfy yourself that the mean identiﬁes the only point that possesses this property. More speciﬁcally, select some other number, preferably a whole number (for convenience), and then ﬁnd the sum of all scores in Part (a) expressed as positive or negative distances from the newly selected number. This sum should not equal zero.

3.15 If possible, ﬁnd the median for the ﬁ lm ratings listed in Question 2.8 on page 39.

3.16 Specify the single average—the mode, median, or mean—described by the following statements.

(a) It never can be used with qualitative data.

(b) It sometimes can be used with qualitative data.

(d) It always can be used with ranked data.

(e) Strictly speaking, it only can be used with quantitative data.

3.17 Indicate whether each of the following distributions is positively or negatively skewed. The distribution of

(a) incomes of taxpayers has a mean of $48,000 and a median of $43,000

(b) GPAs for all students at some college has a mean of 3.01 and a median of 3.20

(c) number of “romantic affairs” reported anonymously by young adults has a mean of 2.6 affairs and a median of 1.9 affairs

(d) daily TV viewing times for preschool children has a mean of 55 minutes and a median of 73 minutes REVIEW QUESTIONS 73

3.18 Given that the mean equals 5, what must be the value of the one missing observation from each of the following sets of observations?

(a) 1, 2, 10

(b) 2, 4, 1, 5, 7, 7

3.19 Indicate whether the following terms or symbols are associated with the population mean, the sample mean, or both means.

(a) N

(b) varies

(d) n (e) constant

(f) subset

REVIEW QUESTIONS *4. 9

For each of the following pairs of distributions, ﬁrst decide whether their standard deviations are about the same or different. If their standard deviations are different, indicate which distribution should have the larger standard deviation. Hint: The distribution with the more dissimilar set of scores or individuals should produce the larger standard deviation regard-less of whether , on average, scores or individuals in one distribution differ from those in the other distribution.

(a) SAT scores for all graduating high school seniors (a 1 ) or all college fresh-men (a 2 )

(b) Ages of patients in a community hospital (b 1 ) or a children’s hospital (b 2 )

(d) GPAs of students at some university as revealed by a random sample (d 1 ) or a census of the entire student body (d 2 )

(e) Anxiety scores (on a scale from 0 to 50) of a random sample of college students taken from the senior class (e 1 ) or those who plan to attend an anxiety-reduction clinic (e 2 )

(f) Annual incomes of recent college graduates (f 1 ) or of 20-year alumni (f 2 )

4.10 When not interrupted artiﬁcially, the duration of human pregnancies can be described, we’ll assume, by a mean of 9 months (270 days) and a standard deviation of one-half month (15 days).

(a) Between what two times, in days, will a majority of babies arrive?

(b) A small minority of all babies will arrive sooner than ______? (c) A small minority of all babies will arrive later than ______?

(d) In a paternity suit, the suspected father claims that since he was overseas during the entire 10 months prior to the baby’s birth, he could not possibly be the father. Any comment?

DESCRIBING VARIABILITY

4.14

(a) Using the computation formula for the sample sum of squares, verify that the sample standard deviation, s , equals 23.33 lbs for the distribution of 53 weights in Table 1.1.

(b) Verify that a majority of all weights fall within one standard deviation of the mean (169.51) and that a small minority of all weights deviate more than two standard deviations from the mean.

4. 17 Why can’t the value of the standard deviation ever be negative?

4.19

Referring to Review Question 2.18 would you describe the distribution of majors for all male graduates as having maximum, intermediate, or minimum variability?

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Scientific Merit Evaluation Paper homework help

February 2, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Scientific Merit Evaluation Paper homework help

Scientific Merit Paper Evaluation – See Details.

INTRODUCTION

Throughout this course, you have learned about several research approaches in both qualitative and

quantitative methodology. Even though there are many ways in which researchers can solve research problems

with different research approaches and designs, there is one thing that all good scientific research has in

common: scientific merit.

At the beginning of the course, you were introduced to the concept of scientific merit. You learned that in order

for research to have scientific merit, it must achieve three things:

• It must contribute something new to the scientific knowledge base in the field. In order for research to

do this, a researcher must conduct a thorough literature review to identify a research problem. A

research problem is something that has not been addressed by previous research, and would be

meaningful to know. Often, the research problem is referred to as a gap in the literature.

• It must contribute to theory. Theories are the primary tools by which science organizes its

knowledge—the tools that allow the field to explain previous and current findings and predict future

ones. Research that has scientific merit can advance theories in several ways, including confirming,

extending, refuting, or proposing theories.

• It must meet the hallmarks of good research. This is the component that has been most emphasized in

this course as you have learned about the defining characteristics of the two methodologies and the

various approaches of both. But a researcher who has conducted high-quality research has only met this

criterion of scientific merit to the extent that the research design and procedures allowed the research

problem to be solved and the research questions to be answered. It is crucial to remember that the

purpose of research is to solve a research problem by investigating something that has not been

previously researched; that is, to fill the gap in the literature. Research methods are simply tools that

researchers use to do this. When researchers effectively use research methods to solve a research

problem, then we can say that the research has met the hallmarks of good research.

As a professional, you will be called upon to use research findings in the psychological literature. In order to do

this, you will be responsible for evaluating the scientific merit of the research that produced those findings.

While most research published in peer-reviewed journals can be trusted to have good scientific merit, it can be

risky not to evaluate research for yourself, especially research findings most pertinent to your work and career.

This course has given you the opportunity to learn how to do this for yourself, should you ever plan to do your

own research in the future. It has provided you with the necessary background regarding how to plan research

that has good scientific merit.

OBJECTIVES

To successfully complete this learning unit, you will be expected to:

1. Discuss hallmarks of good research.

2. Distinguish three dimensions of scientific merit.

3. Apply principles of scientific merit to chosen research study.

Scientific Merit – STUDIES

Readings

Leedy and Ormrod text to complete the following:

• Review the “What Is Research” section of Chapter 1, “The Nature and Tools of Research,” pages 3–7.

This review will put the details of research methods you have learned in the class into a larger

Perspectives

Transcript

• Review the Scientific Merit Presentation transcript piece. This will refresh your knowledge on

scientific merit to help you address this unit’s assignment.

SCIENTIFIC MERIT PAPER

Resources

Scientific Merit Paper Scoring Guide.

• Evaluates the scientific merit of the article by analyzing how the research advances the scientific knowledge base.

• Evaluates the scientific merit of the article by analyzing how the research contributes to research theory and the

field of study.

• Evaluates the scientific merit of the article by analyzing the scientific methods.

• Analyzes the validity and reliability of a selected research study and elaborates on how it contributes to scientific

merit.

• Analyzes the effectiveness of strategies selected for addressing ethical concerns in the design of a research study.

• Communicates in a manner that is completely scholarly, professional, and consistent with expectations for

members of the identified field of study, and uses APA style and formatting with few or no errors.

APA Style and Format.

Research Library.

Persistent Links and DOIs.

Using the research study you selected and attached, along with the course assignments for which

you deconstructed your research study, write a scientific merit paper. In your paper, address the following:

• Evaluate how a research study advances the scientific knowledge base of an identified field of study.

• Evaluate how a specific research study contributes to research theory and the field of study.

• Evaluate how the scientific methods of inquiry are applied to a specific research study.

• Evaluate the validity and reliability of a selected research study.

• Assess strategies for addressing ethical concerns in the design of a research study.

• Apply the terminology of research.

• Demonstrate both the depth and the breadth of your understanding of scientific research and

scientific merit by including relevant examples and supporting evidence.

Requirements

scientific merit by including relevant examples and supporting evidence.

Requirements

• The paper should be 10–12 pages long, not counting references, block quotes, or title page. Neither

an abstract nor table of content is required, and would not count in the paper length.

• Minimum of seven scholarly resources. It is expected that one of these resources will be the study you

selected for the Unit 2 assignment, and another will be the required textbook for the course, by

Leedy and Ormrod.

• Use APA style and formatting, including correct in-text citations, proper punctuation, double-spacing

throughout, proper headings and subheadings, no skipped lines before headings and subheadings,

proper paragraph and block indentation, no bolding, and no bullets.

• Include the permalink to your article on the title page of your paper.

Refer to the project description and the assignment scoring guide to make sure you meet the requirements

of this assignment.

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