Archive for month: November, 2023

Part 2: Balgrosky: Chapters 3, 11, and 12 (20 questions worth 4 points apiece)

eHealth is:    The use of e-commerce and e-business practices in health systems management    The delivery of health information, for health professionals and consumers, through the Internet    Using the power of IT to improve public health services    All of the above. Question 2   What is one of the stages of implementation?    Brainstorming    Program Selection    Analysis    Design  Question 3   Systems for exporting data to reporting organizations, such as The Joint Commission, fall into Quadrant _____ of the HIS Planning Framework.    I    II    III    IV    All of the above. Question 4   Which of the following areas is important to EHR data and its usefulness for research?    Data definition variability    Data inaccuracy    Data incompleteness    All of the above Question 5   A good HIS plan can advance the organization’s performance, for example:    Reducing cost.    Reducing waste.    Increasing patient and provider satisfaction.    Improving the quality of care.    All of the above. Question 6   All except one of the following is a challenge to telemedicine and telehealth.    Cultural barriers.    Cost of providing telemedicine.    Too many cases with conflicting research findings.    Legal issues.    Technical challenges. Question 7   The purpose of governmental health care policy is to:    Address issues that the private sector cannot.    Address issues that are related to civil liberties, national security, and public safety.    Protect public health.    All of the above. Question 8   The term “dematerialized information” refers to:    Storing information in the cloud.    Protecting personal medical information.    Information that is bound to a physical structure.    None of the above Question 9   Which of the following is a source of public health data?    News reports    Government    Survey sampling    All of the above Question 10   Infrastructure refers to the electronic highway that carries data and information and includes:    Software.    Patient information.    Servers.    Hosts Question 11   Which of the following does not support better public health surveillance and management?    Widespread EHRs    Health information exchange (HIE)    Online appointment scheduling    Mobile health technology    Better analytics for data Question 12   Health services research is:    The examination of how people get care, what it costs, and what the outcomes are.    The prediction of critical public health threats.    A focused look at clinical care processes and which serve patients best.    All of the above Question 13   Outcomes research, the study of the end results of medical care—is practiced by:    Clinicians.    Universities and teaching institutions.    Private companies and consumers.    Government agencies.    All of the above. Question 14   What is quadrant of the HIS Planning Framework?    Clinical Transaction Systems    Financial Transaction Systems    IT Systems    Patient Systems. Question 15   The number of clinical trials and case reports published each year has grown from _____ in 1950 to ______ now.    0 to 27,000    500 to 3,000    27,000 to 150,000    150,000 to 2,000,000 Question 16   _______ is an automatic collaboration, intrinsic in EHR systems, between care providers and public health agencies to alert the public disease outbreaks.    Syndromic surveillance    Self-reporting    Survey sampling    Sentinel monitoring Question 17   Which of these is not a tool for improving data stewardship and HIS planning?    Data model.    Data dictionary.    Data storage.    Data structures. Question 18   When defining the HIS strategic plan (and the organization’s overall strategic plan) information should be solicited from:    Executive level management.    Clinicians, including nurses, assistants, and physicians.    Administrative staff.    All of the above Question 19   In addition to governance from the board, organizations can and should create data steering committees, which:    Consists of interdisciplinary leaders from all departments.    Consists of IT staff.    Determines the color of upholstery in new cancer centers.    Consists of hospital leaders Question 20   The __________ works bi-directionally—layers both build upon each other and provide feedback for each other.    HRM Conceptual Model    ACL Conceptual Model    HIS Conceptual Model    EHR Conceptual Model

 

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Explanations / 6.1 Qualities of Explanations Questions: 0 of 3 complete (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

Qualities of Explanations

An explanation is a statement that provides a reason for why or how something became the way it is. Arguments present a conclusion that’s presumably new to you and then support this conclusion with evidence that you’re likely to believe. Explanations work the other way around: they start with a conclusion that you likely believe (e.g., the sky is blue) and then offer an explanation for why that is so (e.g., because God is a UNC fan).

We will be looking specifically at causal explanations—that is, explanations in which you suggest that a particular physical or behavioral phenomenon is the result of another event.

Situation	Explanation
Traffic on a Saturday	There must be a football game today.

Most explanations start as theories. It can be challenging to fight the human impulse to pick the first theory that comes to mind and stop there, but what are the odds that the first thing you conceive of is in fact the best possible explanation?

Situation	Explanation
Traffic on a Saturday	Perhaps there’s a concert today? Maybe an art festival? Or possibly an accident up ahead?

With a little imagination, you can come up with a seemingly unlimited number of theories, but at some point you’ve likely exhausted all the plausible explanations.

Situation	Explanation
Traffic on a Saturday	Perhaps a new IKEA has been built without my hearing anything about it, and all these people are headed to the grand opening.

As with all critical thinking, you’ll need some judgment here. Discard the implausible theories (at least initially) and give fair consideration to all the reasonable ones:

· State your theory clearly (make a hypothesis).

· Consider possible alternatives.

· Look at the evidence.

· Evaluate the theory.

Sometimes the facts make the explanation quite clear:

I can see a train moving through an intersection several hundred yards ahead. That explains why traffic isn’t moving.

Other times, you’ll need to employ inductive reasoning to establish the most likely cause:

I can’t see the tracks from here, but I drive through here every Saturday morning and usually a train was responsible for traffic being stalled. So it’s probably a train.

We are presented with many such explanations on a daily basis.

Why is this webpage not loading? Why are sales down for last quarter? Why is my spouse not speaking to me?

As you consider potential explanations, keep the following standards in mind.

Consistency

First, is it internally consistent or does it contradict itself?

Second, is it externally consistent? Could this explanation effectively and fully account for whatever it’s supposed to explain?

A good theory should be compatible with what we already know about how the world works. This is a problem with many paranormal theories—they go against accepted scientific fact. If the theory contradicts established knowledge, the burden of proof is on the new theory.

Falsifiability

Life is fabulously convenient when there’s a quick and easy way to test a hypothesis. Simply asking an expert, examining the evidence, or swapping out the battery may be enough to validate or invalidate your hypothesis.

If you can’t test a theory, you’ve got a non-falsifiable hypothesis because there’s no theoretical way to prove it false.

The lucky rabbit’s foot brings good luck every time the energy in the air is good.

The reason the weather has been getting hotter is because Hephaestus, the ancient Greek god of fire, is angry that people don’t believe in him anymore.

A fortune teller predicts that a stranger will have a profound influence on your future in ways you don’t even realize.

Scope

Great explanations have broad predictive power—they explain a lot. The more the theory predicts and explains, the better. This was how the heliocentric theory ultimately won out over the geocentric theory; the proposition that the earth moves around the sun explained so much more in astronomy than the proposition that the sun moves around the earth.

Simplicity

As a general rule, the best explanation is the simplest one that makes the fewest assumptions. Check out any conspiracy theory. These theories tend to involve unnecessarily complex explanations that raise more questions than they answer, as opposed to mainstream explanations, which are typically simpler and based on plausible premises.

Causality

Just because two things often happen together (correlation), this doesn’t necessarily mean that one causes the other.

Peter’s baby teeth began to fall out around the same time he got better at riding a bike without training wheels. Therefore, Peter’s bike-riding skills were improved by his teeth loss.

There’s no reasonable link between teeth falling out (the purported cause) and bike-riding ability (the purported effect) for this to be a good explanation.

Answer the following questions about the material above.

 

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Imagine that you go into your home and see muddy footprints on the floor from shoes you know are not your own. Give examples of two plausible explanations and two unlikely explanations for the footprints.

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Which of the following explanations for a sudden increase in car accidents at a particular intersection is an unfalsifiable hypothesis?

· Drivers going through the intersection are experiencing a secret impulse to drive recklessly.

· Road conditions have worsened due to an unusually cold and wet winter.

· The new mall built nearby has drawn more young, inexperienced drivers to the area.

· A popular new nightclub has opened two blocks away, leading to more impaired drivers in the neighborhood.

Save

Tyler and Grace water their amaryllis plant regularly, yet for some reason the plant withers and dies. Tyler suggests, “Maybe there was some peculiar property of this particular amaryllis that caused water molecules to react with the soil molecules and chemically change into arsenic molecules, and the arsenic poisoned the plant.” Which of the following is one of the drawbacks of Tyler’s proposed explanation?

· It contradicts itself by claiming that water both helped the plant and hurt the plant at the same time.

· It is consistent with what science knows about chemical reactions involving water molecules.

· It is too simple and doesn’t make enough assumptions about how water molecules behave.

· It confuses correlation and causation by assuming that watering the plant had something to do with its death.

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Practice: Qualities of Explanations

Explaining an Epidemic

Sometimes we seek valid explanations for events merely to satisfy our own personal curiosity, such as wondering why a new mural on the side of a building downtown suddenly appeared. Other times, finding an explanation can be literally a matter of life and death. The following two videos recount the tragedies of the London cholera outbreak of 1854 and physician John Snow’s heroic quest to find, quite simply, an explanation.

Watch the two videos below, and then answer the following questions.

YouTube video. https://youtu.be/HKA0htesJOA . Uploaded May 2, 2012, by the U.S. Census Bureau. To activate captions, first click the play button and then click the CC button in the embedded player. For a text transcript, follow the link below.

Read Text Version

TED video. http://www.ted.com/talks/steven_johnson_tours_the_ghost_map . Filmed November 2006 at TEDSalon 2006. To activate subtitles, first click the play button and then open the dropdown menu in the embedded player and choose a language. For a text transcript, follow the link below.

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In the situation presented in the first video, what was in need of an explanation?

· why England had more epidemics than other countries

· what caused the bad smells in London

· why cholera was so much more dangerous than other diseases

· what caused the cholera outbreak

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According to the “Answering the Three Questions” video, in what way was the “miasmas” (bad smells) explanation inconsistent?

 

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What explanation did Dr. Snow settle on?

· Cholera spread from animals to people.

· Cholera spread through the water supply.

· Cholera spread through contaminated food.

· Cholera spread through contaminated air.

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How was Dr. Snow able to test his proposed explanation?

 

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Explain how Dr. Snow was able to demonstrate that he wasn’t confusing correlation with causation.

 

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Good explanations are often simple, yet they can explain a lot. Explain how the story of Dr. Snow’s “ghost map” drawing demonstrates this.

 

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Steven Johnson argues that the story of the cholera epidemic and Dr. Snow’s map is “fundamentally optimistic.” Explain whether or not you agree and why.

Explanations / 6.3 Scientific Explanations Questions: 0 of 3 complete (0%) | 0 of 2 correct (0%)

Scientific Explanations

Science is all about explanations, about understanding how the world works and finding ever better ways to explain and manage it. As such, scientists tend to excel at critical thinking, and they typically have higher standards for explanations than those in other walks of life.

Science Basics

· Science is a means for uncovering truth that investigates causal explanations to discover empirical facts about how the world works.

· Science is not the only way of constructing knowledge, since we also learn about the world from direct perception, by reasoning, and through aspects of life that are not empirically measurable such as humor, dignity, and love.

· The reliability of science comes from its use of precise definitions, clearly defined contexts, and replicable results. If no one else can recreate your experiment, it’s more anecdote than science.

It is worth noting that while scientific investigations produce verifiable insights, they also routinely invalidate the results of earlier scientific investigations. For this reason, scientists must remain vigilant for errors in method, measure, or inference and be open to alternate explanations.

The Scientific Method

Science is defined by a particular mode of investigation that scientists follow to investigate causal claims. This is known as the scientific method, and it involves a series of steps:

1. Identify the problem or question.

2. Gather evidence and make observations.

3. Form a hypothesis to explain what is happening.

4. Perform an experiment to test the hypothesis.

5. Analyze the results to see if they confirm or refute the hypothesis.

This structure is consistent with much of critical thinking. What sets scientific claims apart are their empirical, observable data and the replicability of experiments.

Bear in mind that research methodology is a rich and complex discipline because there are so many ways for an experiment to go wrong or provide misleading evidence. The basics of the scientific method are quite simple, but executing valid experiments and reasoning soundly from good data isn’t nearly as straightforward as it may seem.

Limits of Science

Science provides such compelling evidence for claims that it’s worth mentioning a few of the limitations of science.

Bias

Scientific efforts may be undertaken by people with personal, political, or financial motives pushing them into many of the pitfalls we’ve previously described, such as selection bias in choosing what to test, how to structure the test, and which evidence to share. Another common failing is to conclude the overall experiment with an explanation that conveniently supports the scientist’s goals but isn’t the best explanation possible.

Metaphysics

Science can’t explain things that can’t be observed and measured. So questions of ethics, aesthetics, and metaphysics are usually outside the scope of the scientific method. For example, the scientific method is, ironically, insufficient for making an argument that science is valuable.

Science vs. Pseudoscience

Some claims look like science but aren’t. We call these pseudoscience. Pseudoscience doesn’t follow the rules of the scientific method. To protect yourself from being taken in by pseudoscience, look out for the following signs:

· Providing the explanation after the fact

· Failing to consider alternatives

· Not being open to the possibility of error

· Bypassing peer review before reporting widely

· Relying heavily on anecdotal evidence

A pseudoscientific explanation will often fail many of the standards of a good explanation:

· Not empirically testable

· Doesn’t explain anything beyond the phenomenon it’s supposed to explain

· Overly complex / raises more questions

· Doesn’t fit in with what we already know about how the world works

Answer the following questions about the material above.

Which of the following questions would you MOST likely look to science to answer?

· Did Percy Shelley’s poetry have more influence on English Romanticism than Lord Byron’s?

· Will passing legislation limiting air pollution antagonize voters who oppose government regulation?

· Will life be more fulfilling if you devote it to the pursuit of meaningful interpersonal relationships or to the work of making the world a better place?

· Are there any circumstances in which humans can telepathically communicate with one another?

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Which of the following is an accurate statement about the nature of science?

· Science avoids considering alternate explanations or being open to the possibility of error.

· Science is self-correcting and perpetually seeking out the best and most accurate explanations.

· Science relies heavily on anecdotal evidence.

· Science is the only way we construct knowledge.

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A friend claims that eating chocolate can strengthen your bone marrow. You’re skeptical of the credibility of that statement, so you read two scientific studies. The first, funded by a large chocolate manufacturing company, confirms this assertion, while the second, funded by the American Society for Nutrition, reaches the opposite conclusion. Should you be more inclined to trust one of these reports over the other? Explain your answer.

 

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Practice: Scientific Explanations

Full Moon, Weird Things

With all the strange and miraculous things going on in the world, sometimes the most astonishing and seemingly impossible claims turn out to be completely true. Other times they’re not. How can you tell the difference? In the first video below, Michael Shermer, editor in chief of Skeptic magazine, provides a list of ten questions you should ask yourself whenever you’re presented with a claim that may be scientific or pseudoscientific. The second video, also featuring Michael Shermer, explores the veracity of the popular notion that strange things happen when the moon is full.

Watch the video below, and then answer the following questions.

YouTube video. https://youtu.be/hJmRbSX8Rqo . Uploaded September 5, 2012, by Rob Robbie. To activate captions, first click the play button and then click the CC button in the embedded player. For a text transcript, follow the link below.

Read Text Version

According to Shermer, why do people believe in “weird things”?

· People fail to realize that they should only believe what they can see with their own eyes.

· Our nation’s educational system fails to adequately teach the difference between science and pseudoscience.

· Our brains are wired to find meaningful patterns.

· Only scientists are capable of sorting out truth from falsehood.

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One of the examples of bad science in the video is the story of the Fleischmann-Pons cold fusion experiment. What was the problem with the cold fusion claim?

· There was no practical use for cold fusion.

· The media misrepresented their claims.

· No one else could replicate the experiment.

· Fleischmann and Pons lacked scientific backgrounds.

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According to Shermer, what is the difference between the people at SETI and people who believe in UFOs?

· People who believe in UFOs have a preponderance of evidence.

· The SETI people are playing by the rules of science.

· The SETI people use a lot of high-tech equipment.

· People who believe in UFOs are idiots.

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Watch the video below, and then answer the following questions.

YouTube video. https://youtu.be/KoyDmwNwIKQ . Uploaded October 19, 2009, by TARPSociety. To activate captions, first click the play button and then click the CC button in the embedded player. For a text transcript, follow the link below.

Read Text Version

One of the nurses says, “I’m a nurse, and I know this for a fact.” Explain how this comment could be used to illustrate the fallacy of unqualified authority.

 

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Point 5 in the Baloney Detection Kit asks whether anyone has tried to disprove this claim. What does the video suggest regarding this point?

 

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Point 6 in the Baloney Detection Kit asks where the preponderance of evidence seems to point. While this video depicts conflicting claims, it suggests that most of the evidence supports which side?

 

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In the flashback to the 1984 news report, the newscaster references a study conducted by a Florida researcher that demonstrated that more murders were committed during a full moon; Shermer then reveals that the study proved to be flawed. Using one of the elements of good vs. bad science detailed above, offer a theory as to what might have gone wrong in this scientific study.

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Statistics and Fallacies

Advice to waiters: Referring to a patron by name will increase tips by 18 percent.

Statistics suggest a precision and certainty that is not always warranted. Derived from gathering and analyzing data, statistics usually involve making a calculation and generating a result in a way that superficially resembles a math problem, which implies the answer is as certain as the truth that 2 + 2 = 4.

But statistical claims are rarely worthy of this level of confidence, and as critical thinkers we need to look closely at how the data were gathered and analyzed. Below are some common problems to watch out for.

Small Sample Size

Only 33 percent of nine-year-olds watch Arthur. I know because I asked three nine-year-olds if they watch Arthur, and just one of them said yes.

While it is technically true that one out of three is 33 percent, it would be deceptive to suggest that this statistic can be generalized broadly when the sample size is far too small to be representative of the entire population of nine-year-olds.

Biased Sample

According to my research, 72 percent of Americans are pulling for the Carolina Panthers. I know because I conducted a scientifically valid survey in Charlotte, North Carolina.

If the sample group surveyed isn’t representative of the population at large in relevant ways, it would be misleading to apply this statistic to the Americans in general.

Manipulative Survey Questions

Approximately 89 percent of Americans are in favor of federal healthcare. I know because we conducted a scientifically valid survey from a random sample of American households controlling for 15 demographic variables. In each survey we asked, “Would you prefer healthcare costs to rise while quality drops, or would you prefer federal healthcare?”

Even if you know that a large and diverse pool of people have been surveyed, if the wording of the question was ambiguous or loaded, the reported statistic may be worthless.

Statistics Based on Guesswork

College students average 4.2 hours of study for every hour in class, according to a study in which the participants were asked about their study habits.

This problem plagues any study relying on the self-reporting of participants without verification. Such studies assume that people will always answer truthfully even when their answers might implicate themselves as unethical, dishonest, criminal, or engaged in thoughts or actions that flout cultural norms.

Missing Background Information

In the five years since the city built the new bike paths, the annual total of bicycle accidents on the main roads has dropped by 34 percent.

Are we talking about 150 bicycle accidents reduced to 100? Or more like three accidents reduced to two? Without any background information beyond the statistic, it’s hard to truly evaluate the impact the new bike paths may have had.

Answer the following questions about the material above.

Sharlene is supposed to poll people about their voting choices for her American Government class. She asks four random people on the street about their vote, and then reports to her class that 75 percent of the city voted Republican. What is the MOST obvious problem with her statistic?

· Background information is missing.

· The survey question is manipulative.

· The sample size is too small.

· The statistics are based on guesswork.

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To find out if members of the community are opposed to soft drinks being sold in middle school cafeterias, Gregoire conducts a survey asking, “Do you support the practice of schools pushing the sales of substances known to lead to obesity and heart disease onto impressionable minors?” After analyzing the results, he concludes that 78 percent of people oppose the sale of soft drinks. What is the problem with his statistic?

· Background information is missing.

· The sample is biased.

· The sample size is too small.

· The survey question is manipulative.

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Imagine that you run across a statistic online claiming that men are 25 percent more likely to ski on dangerous slopes than women. Give examples of at least two pieces of information you would want to know about this statistic before you would accept it as fact.

Are you sure?

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Practice: Statistics and Fallacies

Is a Law Degree a Ticket to Wealth?

Some statistics are deliberately twisted and manipulated, and some are complete fabrications. But even when a statistic comes from a legitimate academic study and has no obvious problems regarding sample size, bias, or manipulative wording, it doesn’t mean that your work as a critical thinker is finished. In the following blog post, Burt Likko analyzes a statistic reported by professors Michael Simkovic and Frank McIntyre in their paper “The Economic Value of a Law Degree” and questions exactly how much value we can place on it.

Read the article below, and then answer the following questions.

Deception with Statistics

In the scenario the writer describes in the beginning, what are law students most concerned about?

· whether they will have high levels of student debt

· whether they will be accepted into a prestigious law school

· whether they will pass the bar exam

· whether they will get well-paying jobs after they graduate

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The writer discusses a statistic about the economic value of a law degree. Which types of people would MOST likely have a personal investment in accurately understanding this statistic?

· people who hope to teach at a law school

· people who haven’t previously considered going to law school

· people who used to work in law but have now switched professions

· people who are evaluating whether going to law school will be financially worth it

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The study analyzed by the writer arrived at which of the following conclusions?

· Female law-school graduates are projected to earn more than male graduates in their lifetimes.

· All law-school graduates earn $1,000,000 in their lifetimes.

· On average, people with law degrees will earn $1,000,000 in their lifetimes.

· All graduates of the most prestigious law schools earn $1,000,000 in their lifetimes.

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The writer criticizes Simkovic and McIntyre’s paper because it “fails to include some other big numbers.” What “big numbers” does the statistic avoid addressing?

· the difference between earnings in the 25th, 50th, and 75th percentiles

· the costs of going to law school

· the income difference between men and women

· the lifetime earnings of the average law-school graduate

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What does the writer mean when he says, “There’s a long tail that comes after the tall head”?

· There is a small number of law-school graduates who make very high salaries, but there is a far larger number of law-school graduates who make significantly lower salaries.

· Law-school graduates have many long years of paying back student loans after their three years of law school.

· The huge expense of going to law school will be followed by long years of solid income to make up for it.

· Law-school graduates usually have to wait a long time before they can get a job in their field.

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Now that you’ve read the writer’s evaluation of the claim that “the mean pre-tax lifetime value of a law degree [is] approximately $1,000,000,” explain whether or not you think you think that statistic qualifies as “deceptive” and why.

Are you sure?

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Question 1 .

The first step in any epidemiological investigation is to ____.

Answer

understand causation establish risk factors track trends and determine if particular diseases are increasing or decreasing in the population describe the population demographically by age, race, sex, education, and other relevant indicators

Question 2 .

One of the important concepts from the Nuremberg Code is that of ____, which means that the subject understands the scope of the study and can make an informed decision to participate.

Answer

informed consent voluntary consent beneficence primary agent

Question 3 .

A disease or condition that affects a greater than expected (normal) number of individuals within a population, community, or region at the same time is referred to as an ____.

Answer

epidemic endemic outbreak epidemic threshold

Question 4 .

The normal occurrence of a disease or condition common to persons within a localized area is known as a(n) ____.

Answer

transmission pandemic endemic epidemic

Question 5 .

Reproductive health studies ____.

Answer

the role of genetics in disease development the occurrence and risk factors for disease such as cancer, heart disease, and diabetes that are slow to develop but span many years the distribution and risk factors for injuries, either accidental or intentional normal reproductive processes and problems that can occur including infertility, birth defects, and low birth weight

Question 6 .

The course of a disease, if left untreated, is referred to as ____.

Answer

transmission control measure natural history geographic pattern

Question 7 .

Physical, biological, social, cultural, and behaviors that influence health are known as ____.

Answer

risk factors health-related states agents determinants

Question 8 .

James Lind (1716-1794) observed the effect of time, place, weather, and diet on the spread of disease by ____.

Answer

comparing sick persons to well persons applying the germ theory to public health introducing randomization when conducting clinical trials applying the germ theory to hygiene practices

QUestion 9

The aspect of consistency means that ____.

Answer

an increasing amount of exposure increases the risk the association should be compatible with existing theory and knowledge the association is consistent when results are repeated in studies in different settings using different methods the findings agree with currently accepted understanding of pathological processes

QUestion 10

The modern epidemiologic triangle includes groups of populations, causative factors, and ____.

Answer

alternate explanations risk factors results coherence

Question 11

For chronic diseases, the time between exposure and symptoms is called the ____ period, which can range from a few months to many years.

Answer

latency incubation temporal plausibility

Question 12

Risk factors or exposures that we think might affect the outcome are known as ____.

Answer

indirect causes direct causes dependent variables independent variables

QUestion 13

Identifying diseases prior to the clinical stage means that prevention efforts can begin immediately. Because the disease is already present, this is an example of ____ prevention.

Answer

primary secondary tertiary quaternary

QUestion 14 The time between infection and clinical disease is referred to as a(n) ____.

Answer

a plausible period temporal period incubation period latency period

Question 15 .

A proportion measured over a period of time is known as a ____.

Answer

period prevalence prevalence proportion point prevalence rate

Question 16

The representation of a numerator as a fraction of a denominator is known as a(n) ____.

Answer

proportion rate incidence rate specific rate

Question 17 .

Prevalence equals ____.

Answer

incidence times duration of disease incidence divided by duration of disease incidence plus duration of disease incidence divided by duration of disease times 100

Question 18 .

While many people are used to hearing proportions represented as a percentage, many population samples in epidemiology are often presented per ____.

Answer

1,000 10,000 100,000 1,000,000

.Question 19 .

By definition, the disease or condition used to identify a case is determined by the ____.

Answer

hypothesis conclusion prevalence incidence

Question 20 .

A person in the population or study group identified as having the particular disease, health disorder, or condition under investigation is known as a ____.

Answer

person time case suspect case proportion

QUestion 21:

The number of new cases of disease in a specified time (usually one year) divided by the population “at-risk” to develop the disease is known as ____.

Answer

prevalence proportion incidence rate contingency case severity

Question 22 .

The number of existing cases of disease divided by the population is known as ____.

Answer

crude rate person time incidence rate prevalence proportion

Question 23 .

If a bacterium carries several resistance genes, it is called a ____.

Answer

multidrug resistant drug or super-drug multidrug resistant bacterium or superbug resistant bacterium or streptococcus bacterium killer bacterium or deadly bacterium

.Question 24 .

The disease carrier of most concern is known as a(n) ____, which is an infected person who never gets clinically ill, but can transmit the etiologic agent to others.

Answer

healthy or passive carrier pregnant carrier convalescent carrier active carrier

Question 25 .

____ is the transmission of a disease from mother to child during pregnancy or delivery.

Answer

Horizontal transmission Vertical transmission Lateral transmission Polar transmission

Question 26

There is ____ in the overall crude death rate in the United States from the year 1900 until 1996.

Answer

a definite increase a slight decrease hardly any change a clear decline

Question 27 .

The probability of death due to infectious disease in sub-Saharan Africa is ____%, but only ____% in developed countries, such as the United States.

Answer

22; 1.1 35; 10 66; 11 50; 22

Question 28 .

One of the most important emerging problems with the control of infectious diseases has to do with ____.Answer

deadly parasitic infections antibiotic resistant viral infections antibiotic resistant bacterial infections vaccine resistant viral infections

Question 29 .

A(n) ____ is an infected individual capable of transmitting disease during and after clinical disease.

Answer

convalescent carrier passive carrier active carrier inactive carrier

Question 30 . ____ is the transmission of a disease from person to person, and may be directly from one person to another, or indirectly from one person through an intermediate item to another person.

Answer

Horizontal transmission Vertical transmission Quick transmission Polar transmission

 

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Choose two of the following four case studies and answer questions by using Code of Ethics for Professional Engineers as your guideline in addition to your readings and understanding of sustainability.

Use Times New Roman 12 pt.

Single Line Spacing

1 page or 350 words minimum

2 pages or 700 words maximum

Show good faith effort

Cite the references you used to support your ideas, and claims. (IEEE style of citation)

Save it as PDF and upload it to BB for HW2. Check the rubric to see how this assignment will be graded. Meet all the requirements above to get a full credit, Failure to meet any of the above criteria will get “zero credit”.

 

Case Study 1: Kara has been working as an environmental engineer at a consulting firm for over twenty-five years. Well-known for settling disputes between her corporate clients before litigation must be pursued, Kara often analyzes technical data, particularly distributions of solid particle pollution, presented by disputing parties to help them reach a compromise on the cost of environmental cleanup. For example, two parties may be separated from one another by a strip of land; however, each party must fiscally contribute in keeping the land free from pollutants. One day, Kara was contacted by a journalist to talk about her experiences at the firm. Kara spoke about how she often encountered cases where companies did not accurately depict levels of solid particle pollution occupying the companies’ respective surroundings. Instead, technical experts, who are mostly engineers, would misrepresent data in order to make it seem that minority parties were responsible for a greater part of the contamination. At the end of the interview, Kara emphasized the necessity of engineers taking ownership and being honest about the presentation of data. Q: At what point does an engineer’s interpretation of data move from sound technical reasoning to misrepresentation? How should engineers deal with the pressure to come up with data that may indicate favorable results for their employers? Credit: Jocelyn Tan was a 2014-2015 Hackworth Fellow in Engineering Ethics at the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University.

 

Case Study2: Solomon is a principal engineer at an environmental engineering consulting firm. His main role is to advise clients on what type of action to take when they are faced with risks and liabilities while conducting certain projects. In one case, Solomon had a client that wanted to expand their campus until it was within approximately 50 meters of a marshland. After construction of this extension, however, the client must ensure that a proper waste management plan is in place so that contamination will have minimal effect on the surrounding habitat. The client came up with a solution that satisfied, but did not go beyond the bare minimum of state regulations. In other words, although Solomon’s client prioritized a cost-effective plan, the environment would be subject to a certain percentage of contamination that would, within five to ten years, stifle the marshland’s flourishing. Q:Should Solomon push for a more fiscally demanding, yet sustainable strategy–at the risk of his client backing out of the partnership altogether? Credit: Jocelyn Tan was a 2014-2015 Hackworth Fellow in Engineering Ethics at the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Case Study 3: After earning a graduate degree in Engineering Management, Ashton began working for PDRC International. This is a company based in the U.S. which offers engineering, design, and construction services to countries all over the world. Ashton’s work is focused on international development; her first assignment is to lead a team to develop a bid for a highway construction project in East Africa. After the engineering proposal is submitted, Ashton is proud of the work her team has accomplished and promises her manager she will do everything possible to make sure that PDRC receives the contract. PDRC’s bid is well-received, and Ashton and her team are flown to East Africa to finish negotiations. Ashton is thrilled when her company receives the bid; the only stipulation is that they build their construction headquarters in a specific region in the country. Ashton then begins scouting the region for a location to build their headquarters. In order to obtain building permits in the region, Ashton has to negotiate with the local government. As she begins negotiations, she realizes that bribery is both a common and expected practice. If she does not bribe the local officials, she will not be able to build PDRC’s headquarters in that region and consequently will lose the contract; her first managerial project will be a failure. However, it is illegal for a U.S. citizen to bribe a foreign official in order to obtain business; if she is caught for bribery, she could face jail time and her company could be fined millions of dollars. Q: What should she do? Explain your answer. Credit: Clare Bartlett was a 2014-2015 Hackworth Fellow in Engineering Ethics at the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University.

 

Case Study 4: Jack has been working as a project engineer for a mechanical energy technology firm for a few years now, and has recently been promoted to review projects for in-need communities overseas. He has been put in charge of managing the current company’s charity projects, and determining how to distribute the funding for them. Some of the projects are pretty straightforward in their mission and material requirement, but for one project, Jack isn’t sure whether the company should be funding it. The project’s mission is to provide new solar panels for an East African community but the project data suggests it is more practical to just install better lighting inside the homes. Jack wonders whether to bring up his doubts with his boss. Based on the company’s research on the community, the community desires better lighting system for their homes, and the solar panels would be an expensive and high maintenance project. Not to mention, there was a previous project that (when followed through) resulted in equipment being stolen from the same region to exchange for money. Jack understands their local sponsor would gain a great advantage in featuring solar panels in the community. It would also foster a good business partnership between the two companies. However, Jack feels it is his responsibility to provide the community with a more simple and efficient solution to their problem, without diving into a large project that could possibly lead to negative side effects. Q: Is Jack’s company wrong to provide technology to the community when they don’t need it? Credit: Nabilah Deen was a 2014-2015 Hackworth Fellow in Engineering Ethics at the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics at Santa Clara University

 

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