Cultural Diversity In Health& Illness

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Cultural Diversity In Health& Illness

HCA 340 Cultural Diversity In Health & Illness
Healthcare Administration

HCA UNIT 3

1. The nurse is observing a healing ceremony performed by people of the American Indian culture. What is a characteristic of this ceremony?

a. Sound

b. Quiet

c. Herbal teas

d. Hallucinogenic plants

2. A patient of the American Indian culture tells the nurse that the medicine man is consulted when an illness develops. How does a person become a medicine man?

a. Know the interrelationships between people, the earth, and the universe

b. Understand the ways of plants and animals

c. Perform special ceremonies

d. All of the above.

3. What is the difference between the modern physician and the medicine man when determining the cause of an illness?

a. The medicine man looks for the physical cause of the problem

b. The medicine man looks for the spiritual cause of the problem

c. The medicine man studies the patient’s past medical history to determine the cause of the illness

d. The medicine man studies the dietary practices of the person being seen

4. In which American Indian tribe are meditation and herbs used to create a trance to provide the vision of the evil that causes an illness?

a. Hopi

b. Sioux

c. Navajo

d. Cherokee

5. Which Navajo American Indian divination method will women practice to diagnose the cause of a disease?

a. Singing

b. Listening

c. Motion in the hand

d. Stargazing

6. What is the purpose of sand paintings when diagnosing illness in the Navajo American Indian culture?

a. Creates symbolic representations of the client and family

b. Ensures that appropriate payment is made by the family

c. Provides an atmosphere of calm for the medicine man

d. Determines the cause and treatment of the illness

7. The nurse is conducting a medication history with a patient from the Oneida American Indian culture. Which remedies would the nurse include as part of this history?

a. Witch hazel

b. Comfrey

c. Skunk oil

d. All of the above.

8. A patient that is of the American Indian culture is waiting to be seen in a non-Indian Health Service facility. What concern might this patient have about receiving health care through this route?

a. Conflict between his or her perception of the illness and what the physician diagnoses

b. Easier to receive medical care through emergency departments rather than private physicians

c. Receive better health care from mainstream medical services

d. Concern that medical insurance won’t cover all the medical costs

9. Which action would the nurse take when assessing a patient of American Indian culture?

a. Remaining quiet and recognizing the importance of nonverbal communication to seek  information

b. Asking detailed questions regarding the presenting symptoms

c. Asking indirect questions about the reason for seeking health care

d. Ensuring that no one beyond the medical provider and the client discuss what has brought the client to seek care

HCA 340 Cultural Diversity In Health & Illness
10. Which is a concept of holism in traditional Chinese medicine?

a. Integration of the body with the external environment

b. Energy fields that create health or disease

c. Local pathology as separate from the body

d. Harmonic balance that creates illness

11. Which action would a patient, who practices Ayurvedic medicine, take to reestablish harmony and balance in the body?

a. Sit in the sun

b. Speak to a doctor

c. Yoga

d. Ingest a substance to cleanse the body of substances that cause disease

12. The nurse is planning care for a group of community members who follow Ayurveda medicine. What beliefs about this form of health care would the nurse need to keep in mind while  planning this care?

a. All things in the universe are joined together.

b. Human beings contain elements that can be found in the universe.

c. All people are born in a state of balance.

d. All of the above.

13. A patient of the Asian culture tells the nurse that an alteration in yin and yang will lead to disease. Which variable can affect the body’s yin and yang?

a. Clothing

b. The weather

c. Social class

d. Improper food preparation

14. Why does the Chinese physician focus on palpating a patient’s pulse?

a. It is considered the storehouse of the blood.

b. It indicates a specific treatment.

c. It can help to cure a patient.

d. It determines the time of death.

15. A belief of Ayurvedic medicine is the concept of doshas. What is a characteristic of this concept?

a. Combine space and air to control nutritional preferences

b. Blend fire and water to balance mental capacities

c. Are constantly formed and reformed by food, activity, and bodily processes

d. Use water and earth to regulate hormonal balance

HCA 340 Cultural Diversity In Health & Illness
16. While assessing the health history of a patient who is an Asian/Pacific Islander, what will the  nurse identify as a leading cause of death for people from this culture?

a. Malignant neoplasms

b. Influenza and pneumonia

c. Alzheimer’s disease

d. Chronic lower respiratory diseases

17. Why does poor health continue to occur among immigrant Asian populations?

a. Poor working environments and crowded living conditions

b. Refusal of Western medicine to treat Asian immigrants

c. Inability to tolerate Western medications

d. Low number of health care workers of Asian origin

18. How would a patient from the Black culture treat poison ivy?

a. Sprinkling crushed bluestone powder on the affected area

b. Placing a mixture of garlic, onions, and parsley on the site

c. Placing clay in a dark leaf over the affected area

d. Rubbing Vicks Vaporub on the area

19. In the Black culture, what would be used to treat colds?

a. Sassafras tea

b. Hot lemon water with honey

c. Hot toddy made of tea, honey, lemon, peppermint, and alcohol

d. All of the above.

20. Why are folk remedies still used today in the Black community?

 

a. Tradition of quality care and treatment by healers

b. Acknowledgement of the African heritage

c. Rituals associated with folk remedies

d. Close proximity of hospitals in the community

21. What would be a benefit of following the African food tradition of geophagy?

a. Dirt is high in calcium

b. Pica is an accepted cultural practice

c. Red clay is rich in iron

d. Starch is sweet and dry

22. For which reasons might a patient of the Black culture and of the Muslin religion refuse insulin to treat diabetes mellitus?

a. Because any injectable medication is forbidden

b. If it has a pork base

c. Because it implies the person has not led a holy life

d. During Ramadan

HCA 340 Cultural Diversity In Health & Illness
23. Which is a health statistic of significance to Black or African Americans when compared to all races?

a. A lower incidence of breast cancer

b. Lower percentages of low birth weight infants

c. A lower crude birth rate

d. Lower male death rates from homicide

24. Who does the nurse recognize as being the leading authority figure within the Black familial structure?

a. Female

b. Minister

c. Male

d. Oldest adult child

25. Why would some patients of the Black culture resent using health clinics for care?

a. Prescription medications are given out only to those seen first.

b. Cheaper accessible health care is regarded as demeaning.

c. A day’s work may be lost in waiting to be seen by a physician.

d. There are not enough clinics to focus on Black health problems.

 
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Comparison of Hospital Performance

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Comparison of Hospital Performance

(Comparison of Hospital Performance)

Alesix Tieku

Dr. Hossein Zare,

Research and Data Analysis

HMGT 400 (7980)

March 20, 2019

Week 1, Exercise:

The attached dataset, provides some information about hospitals in 2011 and 2012, download the data and then complete the descriptive table. Please use the following format to report your findings.

Table 1. Descriptive statistics between hospitals in 2011 & 2012

Variables 2011 2012 p-value
N Mean St. Dev N Mean St. Dev
Hospital beds 1505 376.6086 560.8998 1525 376.8 579.8366 < 2.2e-16
Number of paid Employee 1498 1237.276 1615.797 1515 1491.121 1961.637 < 2.2e-16
Number of non-paid Employee 30 39.973 72.58805 30 44.76976 81.29861 6.653e-05
Total hospital cost 1505 216873322 304570722 1525 214748023 294143536 < 2.2e-16
Total hospital revenues 1505 228706319 323339811 1525 229978391 321273114 < 2.2e-16
Available Medicare days 1499 16739.16 19214.29 1516 17110.14 19765.74 < 2.2e-16
Available Medicaid days 1484 5301.199 9207.699 1501 5366.333 9340.373 < 2.2e-16
Total Hospital Discharge 1500 9492.326 10898.6 1517 9544.051 10994.17 < 2.2e-16
Medicare discharge 1499 3230.624 3388.957 1516 3598.248 3785.675 < 2.2e-16
Medicaid discharge 1481 1130.727 1757.158 1498 1119.547 1740.423 < 2.2e-16

 

Based on your findings in which years hospitals had better performance? Please write a short paragraph and describe your findings.

The hospitals had better performance in 2012 compared to 2011. The mean number of hospital beds in 2012 was slightly higher than the mean number of hospital beds in 2011. In terms of revenue, the mean revenue in 2012 was higher than the mean revenue in 2011. The total cost in 2011 was also higher than the total cost in 2012. For these variables, the p. Value is less than 0.05 hence the null hypothesis is not rejected at 95% confidence interval. This implies that the means between the two groups are not different.

solution 

Comparison of Hospital Performance: 2011 vs. 2012

Based on the descriptive statistics provided in the dataset, hospitals performed slightly better in 2012 than in 2011. The mean number of hospital beds in 2012 (376.8) was marginally higher than in 2011 (376.6), suggesting that hospitals maintained or slightly increased their capacity. Additionally, the mean number of paid employees rose notably from 1,237 in 2011 to 1,491 in 2012, reflecting an increase in staffing, which could contribute to improved care delivery and operational efficiency.

Moreover, total hospital revenues increased slightly in 2012, rising from an average of $228.7 million to $229.9 million, while total hospital costs slightly decreased from $216.9 million to $214.7 million. This favorable shift in financial indicators suggests improved cost management and potentially higher profitability. Available Medicare and Medicaid days also increased, along with the number of discharges, indicating higher patient throughput and greater service utilization.

Despite all p-values being less than 0.05—specifically noted as less than 2.2e-16—this statistical significance does not necessarily imply a large or meaningful practical difference. Rather, it shows that the observed differences in means between 2011 and 2012 are statistically significant due to the large sample size. Therefore, even slight changes can appear statistically significant.

In conclusion, the descriptive data suggest slightly improved hospital performance in 2012, characterized by increased revenue, more paid staff, and higher service output, despite minimal differences in some variables.

 
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Cultural Diversity in Health & Illness

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HCA 340 Cultural Diversity in Health & Illness

(Cultural Diversity in Health & Illness)

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. A patient from the Mexican heritage relates using a curandero for health care needs. What are the characteristics of this type of healer?

a. Considered to be a religious figure

b. Was born as a healer

c. Taught the ways of healing through herbs

d. All of the above.

2. In the Mexican health care system, what is the scope of practice of the partera?

a. The care given is confined to the pregnant woman

b. Only provides physical care

c. Acts alone without doing other consultations or referrals

d. Does not participate in labor and delivery

3. During a medical history with a patient from Puerto Rico, what preparations will the nurse need to include?

a. Those obtained from a botanica

b. Those obtained from a botanical center

c. Those obtained from a healer

d. Those obtained from a pharmacy

4. Which is a dilemma encountered by health care providers when trying to accommodate a patient of the Mexican culture’s desire to maintain hot and cold food preferences?

a. Avoiding all foods that contain certain spices

b. Understanding which foods the patient considers hot and cold

c. Obtaining the unusual foods native to a Mexican patient’s diet

d. Ensuring that all medications are taken with specific foods

5. Where might a patient of Puerto Rican heritage seek help when experiencing signs of a mental illness?

a. Milagros

b. Curanderismo

c. Santeria

d. Partera

6. What is a significant factor when caring for health problems of patients within the Hispanic culture?

a. Lack of Spanish-speaking health care providers impeding appropriate care delivery

b. Failure to highlight common chronic diseases among Hispanics in local media

c. Overall population is elderly

d. Use of folk remedies creating cultural dissonance with the medical establishment

7. What would the combination of a young population, high birthrates, and lower socioeconomic status contribute to in the Hispanic population?

a. Higher incidence of births to women under age 18

b. Lower birth weight infants

c. Higher percentage of first trimester prenatal care

d. Higher infant mortality rate

8. Which health problem does the nurse identify as being a higher risk for the patient from the Hispanic culture when compared to the general population?

a. Septicemia

b. Unintentional injuries

c. Chronic lower respiratory diseases

d. Alzheimer’s disease

9. What would the nurse infer about the incidence of lung cancer being lower among Hispanic women versus that of the general population?

a. Hispanic women are not genetically predisposed to lung cancer.

b. Hispanic women are healthier than the general population.

c. Hispanic women have better preventive health practices.

d. Hispanic women are less likely to smoke.

10. What might a patient of German descent used to treat a stomachache?

a. Drink peppermint tea

b. Stop eating for at least 24 hours

c. Take black draught

d. Eat chicken soup

11. Which actions might a patient of German descent use to treat a cough?

a. Rub goose fat on the chest

b. Eating honey and milk

c. Drinking rum

d. All of the above.

12. When caring for a postoperative wound at home, what would a patient of German descent tend to use?

a. Kerosene

b. Iodine

c. Salves and liniments

d. Onion compresses

13. For what would a patient of German descent use cloves?

a. Headache

b. Rheumatism

c. Toothache

d. Fever

14. What would a patient of Italian descent tell the nurse is the cause of pneumonia?

a. Moving air in the form of drafts

b. Eating food that was not nutritious

c. Improper balance of fluids

d. Not dressing properly

Cultural Diversity in Health & Illness

15. What will the nurse assess as an important component of healing for a patient of Italian descent?

a. Religious faith in God

b. Use of garlic and olive oil in tonics

c. Wearing black when a family member is ill

d. Eating pasta at every meal

16. What will a patient of Polish descent tell the nurse is used to treat a cough?

a. Taking garlic oil

b. Goose grease rubbed on the throat

c. Drinking hot lemonade with whiskey

d. A tomato plaster on the chest

17. What will a patient of Polish descent use to treat a burn?

a. Aloe vera

b. Salt pork

c. Carbolic salve

d. Turpentine and liniment

18. For what would a patient of Polish descent tell the nurse that paregoric is used?

a. Gas

b. Diarrhea

c. Indigestion

d. Cramps

19. In which ways does the current United States health care system create barriers to individuals from different cultures?

a. Expectation to select a physician from a list

b. Cost of treatments and tests

c. Violation of cultural beliefs and practices

d. All of the above.

20. How would the use of patient advocates bridge the gap of inadequate numbers of health care providers representing culturally diverse population groups?

a. Speak to patients in their native language

b. Coordinate services to meet the patients’ needs

c. Resolve problems

d. All of the above.

21. The health care administrator is identifying ways to improve communication with non-English speaking patients. Which languages would the administrator target as being spoken by hospital employees?

a. Russian

b. Chinese

c. Spanish

d. None of the above.

22. The nurse is experiencing collisions when attempting to improve cultural competency. What types of collisions is this nurse experiencing?

a. Meeting dense cultural barriers

b. Sabotaged efforts

c. Unexpected hills

d. a and b only

23. Two nurses are overhead talking about their experiences with cultural competency. Which experience would be considered an unexpected positive event?

a. Deep love of life and people

b. Role of a healer within a culture

c. Learning a foreign language

d. Being an advocate for funding

24. What self-observation does the nurse make that indicates that the nurse is “on the road” to cultural competency?

a. you should only observe your own health and illness beliefs

b. Individual culture and religion

c. Adhering to ways to protect health that are consistent with the dominant culture

d. Avoiding the use of amulets

 

25. What action would a nurse take to learn more about the different cultures represented in the community?

a. Walk through the community

b. Prepare a guide sheet with a list of herbs

c. Recognize hot–cold imbalances

d. Recognize folk diseases

 
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Human Nutrition Assignment

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Human Nutrition Assignment

(Human Nutrition Assignment)

Assignment 1: Assessing Reliable Sources

The goal of this assignment is to introduce you to methods used to determine reliable sources of nutrition information. It is important to know how to evaluate health-related information and turn to reliable sources and experts when in need of specific advice. Be sure to read the Health Connection 1 section at the end of Chapter 1 – “How can you find and recognize credible nutrition information?” (p.28-30). Review the first three websites in the  Resources for Chapters 1 & 2  for more detail. You can use the “W” questions from these guides or questions from the book.

Part 1

— Find three websites that  provide information related to nutrition AND health . At least two of these websites should be “.com”  Make sure these websites provide information  to the public . — Analyze each website and determine whether it is a reliable source of information by answering the “W” questions.   — Assign each website a rating of 1-10 for reliability, where 10 is the highest. Remember that you are not assessing whether you like the website or not. Your goal is to assess the  reliability of the information the site provides.   — Write the following for each website:

· Name of the website and its web address (URL)

· A  brief  description of the site and the kind of information it provides

· Your  detailed analysis of reliability , using the “W” questions

· The grade you gave it and the  reasons  for assigning this grade

Part 2

— Find two nutrition experts or individuals who give advice in nutrition in the media. You can use the names from your research of websites in Part 1.   — Write the following for each expert:

· Name of the person and where you found him/her. Provide a reference.

· How did you come across this expert? Why did you decide to choose them?

· Include their academic degrees, professional credentials, professional accomplishments, and their current job position.

· Based on the information in Health Connection 1, do you consider them to be a reliable nutrition expert? Why or why not? Explain. You need to  justify  your opinion.

Use a question-and-answer format for each website. Indicate what exactly questions you are answering.  Provide a reference to the source of the questions you are using (even if it is the textbook).

Your submission will be assigned for anonymous peer review. Please DO NOT write your name on the document. 

Review  Guidelines for Assignments   and the rubric (below) to see how you will be graded for this assignment.

Follow this Rubric

Assessing Reliable Sources-1(Human Nutrition Assignment)

Criteria Ratings Pts

This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome 1. Provides thorough review of THREE nutrition-related websites. The choice of websites is appropriate. Assesses reliability of websites using the “W” questions, and assigns a rating of 1-10. Evaluation is justified. URL is provided for each website. Well organized, uses original and critical thought.

30.0 pts

This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome 2. Provides thorough review of credentials for TWO nutrition experts. Appropriately assesses credibility of nutrition experts using criteria from Health Connection 1. Reference for each expert is provided. Well organized, uses original and critical thought.

10.0 pts

This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome 3. Uses appropriate English grammar, sentence structure, with no errors in spelling, punctuation, and capitalization. Assignment is properly formatted – title, Reference List, paragraph structure, appropriate font, etc.

4.0 pts

This criterion is linked to a Learning Outcome 4. Reviews 2 submissions by other students, fills out the rubric, writes thoughtful feedback. Comments are well organized, critical thought is used. Uses appropriate English grammar. 3 points for each review.

6.0 pts

Total Points: 50.0

Assignment 1: Assessing Reliable Sources

(Human Nutrition Assignment)

The goal of this assignment is to introduce you to methods used to determine reliable sources of nutrition information. It is important to know how to evaluate health-related information and turn to reliable sources and experts when in need of specific advice.

Be sure to read the Health Connection 1 section at the end of Chapter 1 “How can you find and recognize credible nutrition information?” (p.28-30). Review the first three websites in the Resources for Chapters 1 & 2 for more detail. You can use the “W” questions from these guides or questions from the book.

Part 1

Find three websites that provide information related to nutrition AND health. At least two of these websites should be “.com.” Make sure these websites provide information to the public.

Analyze each website and determine whether it is a reliable source of information by answering the “W” questions.

Assign each website a rating of 1-10 for reliability, where 10 is the highest. Remember that you are not assessing whether you like the website or not. Your goal is to assess the reliability of the information the site provides.

Write the following for each website:

  • Name of the website and its web address (URL)

  • A brief description of the site and the kind of information it provides

  • Your detailed analysis of reliability, using the “W” questions

  • The grade you gave it and the reasons for assigning this grade

Part 2

Find two nutrition experts or individuals who give advice in nutrition in the media. You can use the names from your research of websites in Part 1.

Write the following for each expert:

  • Name of the person and where you found him/her. Provide a reference.

  • How did you come across this expert? Why did you decide to choose them?

  • Include their academic degrees, professional credentials, professional accomplishments, and their current job position.

  • Based on the information in Health Connection 1, do you consider them to be a reliable nutrition expert? Why or why not? Explain. You need to justify your opinion.

Use a question-and-answer format for each website. Indicate what exactly questions you are answering. Provide a reference to the source of the questions you are using (even if it is the textbook).

 
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Smoking and Lung Cancer Epidemiology

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Smoking and Lung Cancer Epidemiology

(Smoking and Lung Cancer Epidemiology)

Epidemiology Worksheet

IHP 330 Module Two Worksheet Measuring Disease

A causal relationship between cigarette smoking and lung cancer was first suspected in the 1920s on the basis of clinical observations. To test this apparent association, numerous epidemiologic studies were undertaken between 1930 and 1960. Two studies were conducted by Richard Doll and Austin Bradford Hill in Great Britain. The first was a case-control study begun in 1947 comparing the smoking habits of lung cancer patients with the smoking habits of other patients. The second was a cohort study begun in 1951 recording causes of death among British physicians in relation to smoking habits. This case study deals first with the case-control study, then with the cohort study.

Data for the case-control study were obtained from hospitalized patients in London and vicinity over a four-year period (April 1948 – February 1952). Initially, 20 hospitals, and later more, were asked to notify the investigators of all patients admitted with a new diagnosis of lung cancer. These patients were then interviewed concerning smoking habits, as were controls selected from patients with other disorders (primarily nonmalignant) who were hospitalized in the same hospitals at the same time. Data for the cohort study were obtained from the population of all physicians listed in the British Medical Register who resided in England and Wales as of October 1951. Information about present and past smoking habits was obtained by questionnaire. Information about lung cancer came from death certificates and other mortality data recorded during ensuing years.

Over 1700 patients with lung cancer, all under age 75 were eligible for the case-control study. About 15% of these persons were not interviewed because of death, discharge, severity of illness, or inability to speak English. An additional group of patients were interviewed by later excluded when initial lung cancer diagnosed proved mistaken. The final study group included 1,465 cases (1,357 males and 108 females). The following table shows the relationship between cigarette smoking and lung cancer among male cases and controls:

Table 1

Cases Controls
Cigarette Smoker 1,350 1,296
Nonsmoker 7 61
Total 1,357 1,357

 

1. Accurately calculate the proportion of cases that smoked. Be sure to show your calculations.

2. Accurately calculate the proportion of controls that smoked. Be sure to show your calculations.

3. Accurately calculate the odds ratio, with the correct equation. What do you infer from the odds ratio about the relationship between smoking and lung cancer?

Table 2 shows the frequency distribution of male cases and controls by average number of cigarettes smoked per day.

Table 2: Daily cigarette consumption(Smoking and Lung Cancer Epidemiology)

Daily Number of Cigarettes Number of Cases Number of Controls Odds Ratio
0 7 61 Referent
1–14 565 706
15–24 445 408
25+ 340 182
All smokers 1350 1296
Total 1357 1357

4. Accurately calculate the odds ratios by category of daily cigarette consumption, comparing each category to nonsmokers. Be sure to show your calculations.

5. Interpret these results, and describe the trends or patterns you see in the data.

Part 2: The Cohort Study

Data for the cohort study were obtained from the population of all physicians listed in the British Medical Register who resided in England and Wales as of October 1951. Questionnaires were mailed in October 1951 to 59,600 physicians. The questionnaire asked the physicians to classify themselves into one of three categories: 1) current smoker, 2) ex-smoker, or 3) nonsmoker. Smokers and ex-smokers were asked the amount they smoked, their method of smoking, the age they started to smoke, and, if they had stopped smoking, how long it had been since they last smoked. Nonsmokers were defined as persons who had never consistently smoked as much as one cigarette day for as long as one year. Physicians were also asked whether or not they had a diagnosis of lung cancer. Usable responses to the questionnaires were received from 40,637 (68%) physicians, of whom 34,445 were males and 6,192 were females. The next section of this case study is limited to the analysis of male physician respondents, 35 years of age or older.

The occurrence of lung cancer in physicians responding to the questionnaire was documented over a 10-year period (November 1951 through October 1961) from death certificates filed with the Registrar General of the United Kingdom and from lists of physician deaths provided by the British Medical Association. All certificates indicating that the decedent was a physician were abstracted. For each death attributed to lung cancer, medical records were reviewed to confirm the diagnosis.

Diagnoses of lung cancer were based on the best evidence available; about 70% were from biopsy, autopsy, or sputum cytology (combined with bronchoscopy or X-ray evidence); 29% were from cytology, bronchoscopy, or X-ray alone; and only 1% were from just case history, physical examination, or death certificate. In total, there were 355 cases of lung cancer during this 10-year time period, with 255 newly diagnosed cases of lung cancer.

Of 4,597 deaths in the cohort over the 10-year period, 157 were reported to have been caused by lung cancer; in 4 of the 157 cases this diagnosis could not be documented, leaving 153 confirmed deaths from lung cancer.

The following table shows numbers of lung cancer deaths by daily number of cigarettes smoked at the time of the 1951 questionnaire (for male physicians who were nonsmokers and current smokers only). Person-years of observation (“person-years at risk”) are given for each smoking category. The number of cigarettes smoked was available for 136 of the persons who died from lung cancer.Table 3: Number and rate (per 100,000 person-years) of lung cancer deaths by number of cigarettes smoked per day, Doll and Hill physician cohort study, Great Britain, 1951–1961.

(Smoking and Lung Cancer Epidemiology)

Daily number of cigarettes smoked Deaths from lung cancer Person-years at risk Mortality rate per 1,000 person-years
0 3 42,800 0.07
1–14 22 38,600
15–24 54 38,900
25+ 57 25,100
All smokers 133 102,600
Total 136 145,400

6. Accurately calculates the lung cancer mortality rates for each smoking category. Be sure to show your calculations.

7. Describe the trends or patterns you see in the data about mortality, and explain what the trends or patterns mean.

8. Accurately calculate the incidence for lung cancer during the 10 year time period. Be sure to show your calculations.

9. Accurately calculate the prevalence for lung cancer during this 10 year time period. Be sure to show your calculations.

This worksheet was modified using information from the original case study found on the CDC website:

Centers for Disease Control. (2003). “Cigarette smoking and lung cancer.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Epidemiology Program Office Case Studies in Applied Epidemiology, 731-703. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/eis/downloads/xsmoke-student-731-703.pdf

 
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Unconscious Bias in Decision-Making

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Unconscious Bias in Decision-Making

Unconscious Bias in Decision-Making

Hot Topics In Cognitive Psychology

The goal of this discussion forum is to offer you an introduction to the field of cognitive psychology. Cognitive psychology is a discipline within psychology that is concerned with the scientific study of the human mind. The mind is responsible for a variety of functions and abilities, including perception, attention, consciousness, memory, reasoning, and decision-making. Most of our mental life is unconscious. If the objects of our attention are equated to the objects of our consciousness, it is reasonable to assume that we are aware of only a limited number of events in our daily lives.

For your initial post, complete the following steps:

  • Watch the video entitled, The Magic of the Unconscious: Automatic Brain (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site..
  • Select a “hot topic” of cognitive psychology based on what you have heard and/or seen in the media and your personal interests.
  • Look for a report in the media (e.g., newspapers, magazines, web pages of professional organizations, etc.) that refers to the selected topic such as “defendant cannot remember what happened,” “false memories explain UFO abduction stories,” and so forth.
  • Describe the content of the selected report and offer your own perspective. Namely, use your critical-thinking skills to examine the extent to which the claims made in the report and the evidence upon which the report relies are to be trusted. Then, discuss the real-life consequences of the evidence reported.

In your post, include a link to the selected report, and explain to the members of the class why you have selected it. Support your points with evidence from at least one peer-reviewed research article. Your initial post must be a minimum of 300 words.

Reference:

https://fod.infobase.com/OnDemandEmbed.aspx?token=51893&wID=100753&plt=FOD&loid=0&w=560&h=315&fWidth=580&fHeight=365

Unconscious Bias and Decision-Making: A Cognitive Psychology Perspective

One of the most engaging and widely discussed topics in cognitive psychology today is unconscious bias. This concept has gained significant attention in the media, especially in discussions involving workplace discrimination, policing practices, healthcare disparities, and judicial decisions. The video The Magic of the Unconscious: Automatic Brain highlights how much of our mental processing happens without conscious awareness. This forms the basis for understanding unconscious bias—automatic mental shortcuts rooted in cultural or personal experiences that can influence judgment and behavior.

I selected an article from Scientific American titled “How Unconscious Bias Affects the Way We Treat Others”. The article discusses how implicit biases operate beneath the surface of our awareness and influence daily decisions, even among individuals who consciously reject prejudiced thinking.
https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/how-unconscious-bias-affects-the-way-we-treat-others/

This article aligns with current discussions around social justice and equality. It reports on various studies demonstrating that people often unknowingly make decisions that disadvantage others based on race, gender, or age. For instance, healthcare providers may unintentionally offer lower-quality care to minority patients, or employers might subconsciously favor job applicants with names that sound more familiar to their cultural background.

Critically evaluating this report, I find the evidence credible as it draws from peer-reviewed studies and leading psychological research. One such study is by Green et al. (2007), who investigated implicit bias among physicians using the Implicit Association Test (IAT). They found that physicians’ unconscious biases correlated with their treatment recommendations, particularly for Black versus White patients with identical symptoms (Green, D. R., Carney, D. R., & Pallin, D. J., 2007). This reinforces the article’s claim that unconscious bias has tangible consequences.

The real-life implications are profound. Unconscious bias can lead to systemic inequalities in healthcare outcomes, employment opportunities, and legal judgments. Raising awareness of this cognitive process is essential, as is integrating strategies like bias training and standardized decision-making frameworks to mitigate its effects. This topic is crucial not only within cognitive psychology but also in developing policies for fairer societal systems.

Reference

Green, A. R., Carney, D. R., Pallin, D. J., Ngo, L. H., Raymond, K. L., Lezzoni, L. I., & Banaji, M. R. (2007). Implicit bias among physicians and its prediction of thrombolysis decisions for Black and White patients. Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22(9), 1231–1238.
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2219763/

Reason for Selection

I selected this article because it illustrates how unconscious mental processes studied in cognitive psychology shape real-world interactions in subtle yet impactful ways. Understanding these hidden influences is essential for developing strategies to reduce bias and promote equity in professional and personal settings.

 
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Presidential Healthcare Policy Analysis

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Presidential Healthcare Policy Analysis

(Presidential Healthcare Policy Analysis)

NURS 6050 Assignment: Agenda Comparison Grid And Fact Sheet Or Talking Points Brief

It may seem to you that healthcare has been a national topic of debate among political leaders for as long as you can remember.

Healthcare has been a policy item and a topic of debate not only in recent times but as far back as the administration of the second U.S. president, John Adams. In 1798, Adams signed legislation requiring that 20 cents per month of a sailor’s paycheck be set aside for covering their medical bills. This represented the first major piece of U.S. healthcare legislation, and the topic of healthcare has been woven into presidential agendas and political debate ever since.

As a healthcare professional, you may be called upon to provide expertise, guidance and/or opinions on healthcare matters as they are debated for inclusion into new policy. You may also be involved in planning new organizational policy and responses to changes in legislation. For all of these reasons you should be prepared to speak to national healthcare issues making the news.

In this Assignment, you will analyze recent presidential healthcare agendas. You also will prepare a fact sheet to communicate the importance of a healthcare issue and the impact on this issue of recent or proposed policy.

To Prepare:

  • Review the agenda priorities of the current/sitting U.S. president and the two previous presidential administrations.
  • Select an issue related to healthcare that was addressed by each of the last three U.S. presidential administrations.
  • Reflect on the focus of their respective agendas, including the allocation of financial resources for addressing the healthcare issue you selected.
  • Consider how you would communicate the importance of a healthcare issue to a legislator/policymaker or a member of their staff for inclusion on an agenda.

The Assignment: (1- to 2-page Comparison Grid, 1-Page Analysis, and 1-page Fact Sheet)

Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid

Use the Agenda Comparison Grid Template found in the Learning Resources and complete the Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid based on the current/sitting U.S. president and the two previous presidential administrations and their agendas related to the public health concern you selected. Be sure to address the following:

  • Identify and provide a brief description of the population health concern you selected and the factors that contribute to it.
  • Describe the administrative agenda focus related to the issue you selected.
  • Identify the allocations of financial and other resources that the current and two previous presidents dedicated to this issue.
  • Explain how each of the presidential administrations approached the issue.

(A draft of Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid should be posted to the Module 1 Discussion Board by Day 3 of Week 1.)

Part 2: Agenda Comparison Grid Analysis

Using the information you recorded in Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid on the template, complete the Part 2: Agenda Comparison Grid Analysis portion of the template, by addressing the following:

  • Which administrative agency would most likely be responsible for helping you address the healthcare issue you selected?
  • How do you think your selected healthcare issue might get on the agenda for the current and two previous presidents? How does it stay there?
  • Who would you choose to be the entrepreneur/ champion/sponsor of the healthcare issue you selected for the current and two previous presidents?

Part 3: Fact Sheet or Talking Points Brief

Based on the feedback that you received from your colleagues in the Discussion, revise Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid and Part 2: Agenda Comparison Grid Analysis.

Then, using the information recorded on the template in Parts 1 and 2, develop a 1-page Fact Sheet or Talking Points Brief that you could use to communicate with a policymaker/legislator or a member of their staff for this healthcare issue. You can use Microsoft Word or PowerPoint to create your Fact Sheet or Talking Point Brief. Be sure to address the following:

  • Summarize why this healthcare issue is important and should be included in the agenda for legislation.
  • Justify the role of the nurse in agenda setting for healthcare issues.
 
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Skin Cancer and Evolution

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Skin Cancer and Evolution

(Skin Cancer and Evolution)

Biology Questions On Cancer

1. What are the causes of skin cancer?

2. Why are Caucasians more at risk of skin cancer than other populations?

3. At what age does skin cancer typically occur? Is the incidence of skin cancer greater in youth or old age?

4. Does the amount of UV light reaching the Earth vary in a predictable manner (Figure 6-3)? If so, describe the pattern you observe.

5. What latitude receives the greatest amount of UV light (Figure 6-3)? The least?

6. Based on these data (Figure 6-3), where might you expect to find the most lightly pigmented and most darkly pigmented people on the planet? Be as specific as you can.

7. Provide a rationale to your answer above (i.e., why did you think that more darkly pigmented people would be found in those areas)?

8. Interpret Figure 6-4 and the trend it describes.

A. Is skin reflectance randomly distributed throughout the globe? If not, how would you describe the pattern?

B. Restate your findings in terms of skin color and UV light (instead of skin reflectance and latitude).

C. How closely do these findings match the predictions of your hypothesis (Question 6)?

D. Some populations have skin colors that are darker or lighter than predicted based on their loca­tion. Their data point falls somewhere outside of the line shown in (Figure 6-4). What might ex­plain the skin color of these exceptional populations? Propose a few hypotheses.

E. Hypothesize why different skin colors have evolved.

(Skin Cancer and Evolution)

9. Hypothesize why different skin colors have evolved. Based on what you know, what factor is most likely to exert a selective pressure on skin color?

10. Review your answer to Question 3. Keeping your answer in mind, how strong a selective pressure do you expect skin cancer (UV-induced mutations) to exert on reproductive success?

11. Based on this information, does your hypothesis about the evolution of skin color (Question 9) seem likely? Why or why not? How does skin color meet, or fail to meet, the three requirements of natural selection outlined above?

12. Based on Branda and Eaton’s results (Figure 6-5), what is the apparent effect of UV light exposure on blood folate levels?

13. What is the apparent effect of UV light on folate levels in these test tubes? __________________

14. How is folate linked to natural selection?

15. All other things being equal, which skin tone would you expect to be correlated with higher levels of folate? _________________________________________________________________________

16. Based on this new information, revise your hypothesis to explain the evolution of human skin color.

17. What would happen to the reproductive success of:

A.light-skinnedperson living in the tropics? _________________________________________

B. light-skinned person living in the polar region? _____________________________________

C.dark-skinned person living in the tropics? _________________________________________

D.  dark-skinned person living in the polar region? _____________________________________

18. Predict the skin tones expected at different latitudes, taking folate needs into consideration. Use the world map (Figure 6-6) to indicate the skin tone expected at each latitude (shade the areas where populations are darkly pigmented).

19. Can folate explain the variation and distribution of light- and dark-skinned individuals around the world?

20. How is vitamin D linked to natural selection?

21. Which skin tone allows someone to maintain the recommended level of vitamin D? ________________

22. Based on this new information, revise your hypothesis to explain the evolution of the variation and distribution of human skin color.

23. Taking only vitamin D into consideration, what would happen to the reproductive success of:

A. light-skinned person living in the tropics? _________________________________________

B. light-skinned person living in the polar region? _____________________________________

C. dark-skinned person living in the tropics? _________________________________________

D. dark-skinned person living in the polar region? _____________________________________

24. Predict the skin tones expected at different latitudes, taking only vitamin D needs into consider­ation. Use the world map (Figure 6-8) to indicate the skin tone expected at each latitude (shade a region to represent pigmented skin in that population).

25. Can vitamin D alone explain the current world distribution of skin color? ____________________

26. Using principles of natural selection, predict the skin tone expected at different latitudes, taking ul­traviolet exposure, vitamin D, and folate needs into consideration. Use the map (Figure 6-9) to indicate skin tone patterns at different latitudes (shade regions where populations are expected to be darkly pigmented).

27. Are UV light, vitamin D and folate needs sufficient to explain the current world distribution of skin color? ___________________________________________________________________________

28. How might you explain that Inuits, living at northern latitudes, are relatively dark-skinned (much more so than expected for their latitude)? Propose a hypothesis.

29. Conversely, Northern Europeans are slightly lighter-skinned than expected for their latitude. Pro­pose a hypothesis to explain this observation.

 
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Evolution of Skin Pigmentation

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Evolution of Skin Pigmentation

(Evolution of Skin Pigmentation)

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 1 of 7

Activity Student Handout

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

INTRODUCTION Our closest primate relatives have pale skin under dark fur, but human skin comes in a variety of shades from pinkish white to dark brown. How did this variation arise? Many biological traits have been shaped by natural selection. To determine whether the variation in human skin color is the result of evolution by natural selection, scientists look for patterns revealing an association between different versions of the trait and the environment. Then they look for selective pressures that can explain the association.

In this lesson, you will explore some of the evidence for selection by analyzing data and watching the film The Biology of Skin Color (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/biology-skin-color), featuring anthropologist Dr. Nina Jablonski. In Part 1 of this lesson, you’ll discover the particular environmental factor correlated with the global distribution of skin color variations. In Parts 2 and 3, you’ll come to understand the specific selective pressures that have shaped the evolution of the trait. Finally, in Part 4, you’ll investigate how modern human migration is causing a mismatch between biology and the environment.

PROCEDURE Read the information in Parts 1–4 below, watching segments of the film and pausing as directed. Answer the questions in each section before proceeding to the next.

PART 1: Is There a Connection Between UV Radiation and Skin Color? Watch the film from the beginning to time stamp 5:49 minutes. Pause when Dr. Nina Jablonski asks the question, “Is there a connection between the intensity of UV radiation and skin color?”

In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski explains that the sun emits energy over a broad spectrum of wavelengths. In particular, she mentions visible light that you see and ultraviolet (UV) radiation that you can’t see or feel. (Wavelengths you feel as heat are in a portion of the spectrum called infrared.) UV radiation has a shorter wavelength and higher energy than visible light. It has both positive and negative effects on human health, as you will learn in this film. The level of UV radiation reaching Earth’s surface can vary depending on the time of day, the time of year, latitude, altitude, and weather conditions.

The UV Index is a standardized scale that forecasts the intensity of UV radiation at any given time and location in the globe; the higher the number, the greater the intensity. Examine Figure 1 on the next page and answer Questions 1–6.

1. Describe the relationship between the UV Index (the colored bar in Figure 1) and latitude (y-axis).

2. How do you explain the relationship between the UV Index and latitude? (In other words, why does UV intensity change with latitude?)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

(Evolution of Skin Pigmentation)

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 2 of 7

Activity Student Handout

3. Find your approximate location on the map. What is the primary UV Index value of your state on this particular day in September? _________

4. Look at the regions that receive the most-intense UV (light pink). Site a specific piece of evidence from the map that a factor other than latitude was contributing to UV intensity on this day.

5. In the film, Dr. Jablonski explains that melanin, located in the top layer of human skin, absorbs UV radiation, protecting cells from the damaging effects of UV. Genetics determines the type of melanin (i.e., brown/black eumelanin or red/brown pheomelanin) and the amount of melanin present in an individual’s cells. Based on this information, write a hypothesis for where in the world you would expect to find human populations with darker or lighter skin pigmentation (i.e., different amounts of melanin).

6. Explain how scientists could test this hypothesis.

Figure 1. Ultraviolet Radiation Index Across the World. The colors on this map of the world represent Ultraviolet (UV) Index values on a particular day in September 2015. The UV Index is a standardized scale of UV radiation intensity running from 0 (least intense) to 18 (most intense). The y-axis values are degrees of latitude, which range from the equator (0°) to the poles (90° north and −90° south). The x-axis values are degrees of longitude, which range from the prime meridian (0°) to the antimeridian (180° east and −180° west). (Source: European Space Agency, http://www.temis.nl/uvradiati on/UVindex.html.)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

(Evolution of Skin Pigmentation)

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 3 of 7

Activity Student Handout

You will now look at another figure that has to do with skin color. One way to measure skin color is by skin reflectance. Scientists can shine visible light on a portion of skin (typically the inside of the arm) and then measure how much light is reflected back. Dark skin reflects less visible light than does light skin. The lower the reflectance value, therefore, the darker the skin. Examine Figure 2 and answer Questions 7–9.

7. Why do you think that reflectance data are collected from a subject’s inner arm?

8. Describe the relationship between skin reflectance (y-axis) and latitude (x-axis). Consider both the direction and steepness of the lines’ slopes.

9. Do these data support your hypothesis from Question 5? Justify your answer.

Watch the film from time stamp 5:49 minutes to 9:08 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “That suggests that variation in human skin melanin production arose as different populations adapted biologically to different solar conditions around the world.” After watching this segment of the film, answer Question 10.

10. Based on what you know about skin pigmentation so far, suggest a mechanism by which UV intensity could provide a selective pressure on the evolution of human skin color. In other words, propose a hypothesis that links skin color to evolutionary fitness.

Figure 2. Relationship Between Skin Reflectance and Latitude. This figure shows how skin reflectance changes with latitude. Negative latitudes are south of the equator (located at 0°), and positive latitudes are north of the equator. Available reflectance data from multiple sources were combined to form this graph. All combined data were obtained using a reflectometer with an output of 680 nanometers (i.e., a wavelength of visible light) and placed on the subjects’ upper or lower inner arms. (Source: Panel B of Figure 2 in Barsh (2003). Graph originally captioned as “Summary of 102 skin reflectance samples for males as a function of latitude, redrawn from Relethford (1997).” © 2003 Public Library of Science.)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

(Evolution of Skin Pigmentation)

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 4 of 7

Activity Student Handout

PART 2: What Was the Selective Pressure? Watch the film from time stamp 9:08 minutes to 12:19 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “For that reason, though it might cut your life short, it’s unlikely to affect your ability to pass on your genes.” After watching this segment of the film, answer Questions 11–13.

11. What does it mean for a trait, such as light skin coloration, to be under negative selection in equatorial Africa? Relate negative selective pressure to what we know about MC1R allele diversity among African populations.

12. Why does Dr. Jablonski dismiss the hypothesis that protection from skin cancer provided selection for the evolution of darker skin in our human ancestors?

13. Revisit your hypothesis from Question 10. Based on the information you have now, does this seem like a more or less probable hypothesis than when you first proposed it? Provide evidence to support your reasoning.

Watch the film from time stamp 12:19 minutes to 13:32 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “That is what melanin does.” In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski references a paper she had read about the connection between UV exposure and the essential nutrient folate (a B vitamin), which circulates throughout the body in the blood. The paper, published in 1978, describes how the serum (blood) folate concentrations differed between two groups of light-skinned people. You will now look at one of the figures from that paper. Examine Figure 3 and answer Questions 14–17.

Figure 3. Folate Levels in Two Groups of People. In one group (“patients”), 10 individuals were exposed to intense UV light for at least 30–60 minutes once or twice a week for three months. Sixty-four individuals not receiving this treatement (“normals”) served as the control group. The difference between the two groups was statistically significant (p < 0.005). Brackets represent the standard error of the mean, and “ng/mL” means “nanograms per milliliter.” (Republished with permission of the American Assn for the Advancement of Science, from Skin color and nutrient photolysis: an evolutionary hypothesis, Branda, RF and Eaton, JW, 201:4356, 1978; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

(Evolution of Skin Pigmentation)

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 5 of 7

Activity Student Handout

14. Describe the relationship between folate levels and UV exposure. Use specific data from the graph to support your answer.

15. Dr. Jablonski describes learning that low folate levels are linked to severe birth defects as a “eureka moment.” Explain what she means by this.

16. Based on this new information, revise your hypothesis to explain the selective pressure on the evolution of human skin color.

17. Can the effects of UV light on folate explain the full variation of human skin color that exists among human populations today? Explain your reasoning.

PART 3: Why Aren’t We All Dark Skinned? Watch the film from time stamp 13:32 minutes to 16:04 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “Support for the idea that the UV–vitamin D connection helped drive the evolution of paler skin comes from the fact that indigenous peoples with diets rich in this essential vitamin have dark pigmentation.”

Unlike many essential nutrients, vitamin D is produced by the human body. One type of UV radiation called UVB starts a chain of reactions that convert 7-dehydrocholesterol—a chemical found in skin—to vitamin D. Vitamin D is essential to the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the foods we eat to make strong bones. It is also important for reproductive health and for the maintenance of a strong immune system. How much UVB exposure is necessary to synthesize sufficient vitamin D depends largely on two factors: UVB intensity and skin color. In general, at a given UV intensity, a dark-skinned individual must be exposed to UVB five times as long as a light-skinned individual to synthesize the same amount of vitamin D.

Dr. Jablonski and Dr. George Chaplin published a paper in which they theorize whether available UV around the world would enable individuals with different skin colors to synthesize an adequate amount of vitamin D. Figure 4 and Table 1 summarize the results. Analyze Figure 4 and Table 1 and answer Questions 18–21.

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

(Evolution of Skin Pigmentation)

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 6 of 7

Activity Student Handout

Table 1. Key to Zones in Figure 4.

Skin Pigmentation Wide Diagonals Narrow Diagonals Dots

Light N Y Y

Moderate N N Y

Dark N N N

Note: “Y” means that an individual with that skin pigmentation could synthesize sufficient vitamin D in the region indicated throughout the year. “N” means that the person could not.

18. Based on these data, describe the populations least likely to synthesize sufficient levels of vitamin D. Explain your answer with data from the figure.

19. How do these data support the hypothesis that the evolution of lighter skin colors was driven by selection for vitamin D production?

20. For a person living farther away from the equator, would the risk of vitamin D deficiency be uniform or vary throughout the year? If it would vary, how would it vary? Explain your reasoning.

Figure 4. Comparison of Geographic Areas in Which Mean UVB Intensity Would Not Be Sufficient for Vitamin D Synthesis by Populations with Different Skin Colors. Widely spaced diagonal lines show regions in which UVB radiation, averaged over an entire year, is not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis by people with lightly, moderately, and darkly pigmented skin. Narrowly spaced diagonal lines show regions in which UVB radiation is not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis by people with moderately and darkly pigmented skin. The dotted pattern shows regions in which UVB radiation averaged over the year is not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis in people with darkly pigmented skin. (Reprinted from The Journal of Human Evolution, 39:1, Nina G. Jablonski and George Chaplin, The Evolution of Human Skin Coloration, 57-106, Copyright 2000, with permission from Elsevier.)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

(Evolution of Skin Pigmentation)

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 7 of 7

Activity Student Handout

21. Vitamin D and folate levels in the blood are both affected by UV light. Describe the predicted effects of using a tanning booth (which exposes skin to UV light) on the blood levels of these two vitamins.

22. Based on everything that you have learned so far, provide an explanation for how the different shades of skin color from pinkish white to dark brown evolved throughout human history.

PART 4: How Does Recent Migration Affect Our Health? Watch the film from time stamp 16:04 minutes to the end. In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski and Dr. Zalfa Abdel-Malek explain that some people are living in environments that are not well matched to their skin colors. One example is vitamin D production. The recommended level of circulating vitamin D is 20 ng/mL (nanograms per milliliter). But, as you learned in Part 3, vitamin D production is affected by UV intensity and skin color.

Figure 5 shows the concentrations of serum 25(OH)D vitamin, which is the main type of vitamin D that circulates in blood. Measurements were taken among people living in the United States and were standardized to negate the effects of weight, age, and other factors. Examine Figure 5 and answer Questions 22 and 23.

23. Describe the trends visible in the data. Which subpopulation (gender, race/ethnicity) is at the greatest risk for vitamin D deficiency? Which subpopulation is at the least risk for vitamin D deficiency?

24. What is one of the consequences of recent human migrations on human health?

Figure 5. Adjusted mean serum 25(OH)D levels according to race/ethnicity and stratified according to gender (n = 2629). aAdjusted for gender, age, weight, education, income, urban, region; b adjusted for age, weight, education, income, urban, region. (Reproduced with permission from Pediatrics 123, 797-803, Copyright© 2009 by the AAP.)

  • Introduction
  • PROCEDURE
    • PART 1: Is There a Connection Between UV Radiation and Skin Color?
    • PART 2: What Was the Selective Pressure?
    • PART 3: Why Aren’t We All Dark Skinned?
    • PART 4: How Does Recent Migration Affect Our Health?
 
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Discoveries inthe War on Cancer

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Discoveries inthe War on Cancer

(Discoveries inthe War on Cancer)

Individual Assignment 3 – 10 Discoveries inthe War on Cancer

1. Virologists are modifying lentiviruses as vectors for carrying proto-oncogenes into cancer-transformed cells in culture. They are developing this virus for inserting the ras proto-oncogene directly into its correct location in the genome. The correct ras gene will already be linked to human DNA on either side of it and complexed with a recombination enzyme that will insert it into its correct location within the human genome. At the same time, the recombination enzyme will excise the defective oncogenic form of ras. The cells in culture should again come under normal hormonal control and require extra-cellular signals in order to continue dividing.

2. Malignant brain tumors in adults are fast-growing cancers with median survival rates of 15 months, even with aggressive treatment. Researchers have been searching for genetic “signatures” (characteristic groups of cancer-causing genes) that could help in defining the kind of brain tumor the patient has. They hope to be better able to predict the course of the disease and more accurately design the patient’s course of treatment.

3. Tobacco smoking is the leading cause of preventable deaths worldwide. It is a risk factor for lung cancer and several other types of cancer. Results of analysis of the entire human gene collection (the “genome”) support some previous findings that a region of human chromosome number 15 contains one or more genes that are associated with smoking intensity (the number of cigarettes smoked per day) and the closely related trait of nicotine dependency. Scanning people’s genomes for these genes will help them to determine their risk of addiction should they begin smoking tobacco.

4. Immunologists are working with a mutation (HER2) that is expressed on the surface of many breast, bladder, pancreatic, and ovarian cancer cells. They have made antibodies against this mutant surface protein. These antibodies have been covalently bonded to a “gene expression vector” that makes cells light up when incubated with luciferin from fire flies. The vector takes the gene for luciferin into the cancer cells. The researchers have shown that their antibody can accurately find and “light up” cancer cells. Their next step is to bond the antibody to an expression vector that carries the normal HER2 gene into mutant cancer cells.

5. Immunologists are investigating ways to destroy lymphocytes (white blood cells of the immune system) that have become cancerous (lymphomas). A current drug Rituximab contains antibodies that bind to the surfaces of these lymphocytes setting them up for destruction by the cancer patient’s own immune system. They are currently seeking ways to modify the antibody’s structure so that it will attract the cancer patient’s “natural killer” (NK) cells to the lymphocytes. Success of this project will bring a multi-faceted immune response against lymphomas and hasten destruction.

(Discoveries inthe War on Cancer)

6. Biochemists have discovered a protein kinase enzyme named BRAF that is an important link in a molecular pathway that causes a cell to divide. Normally, BRAF responds to signals coming from outside the cell—signals calling for the cell to divide normally under normal conditions. But there is a mutation in BRAF enzymes that causes it activate the cell toward division continually. In this way it gives rise to melanomas and thyroid or ovarian cancers. Biochemists have also found a drug, vemurafenib, which binds selectively to mutant BRAF totally inactivating it. Cells that have inactivated BRAF undergo apoptosis—a process that leads to cell death.

7. Molecular biologists have taken nanoparticle-sized spheres and used them to deliver a cell-killing toxin from bee venom to tumors in mice, substantially reducing tumor growth without harming normal body tissues. Nanoparticles are known to concentrate in solid tumors because blood vessels in tumors show “enhanced permeability and retention effect” or EPR. Hence substances such as nanoparticles escape more readily from the bloodstream into tumors and the generally poor drainage of lymph from tumors further helps trap the particles in tumor tissue.

8. Organic chemists are exploring structural variations of the organic compound avobenzone (1-[4-Methoxyphenyl]-3-[4-tert-butylphenyl] propane-1,3-dione) for inclusion in sunblock products. Avobenzone is known for its ability to absorb a broad spectrum of ultra-violet radiations including UVB light (known to enhance the frequency of basal cell and squamous cell carcinomas [skin cancers]); and UVA rays thought to increase the frequency of melanoma cancers. New variations in the structure of avobenzone are hoped to retain the ability to absorb harmful UV radiation while having an increased stability in the presence of that radiation.

9. Biochemists are analyzing the many, many components of red meat (beef and pork) to determine which component, if any, will cause increased colorectal cancer rates in mice when the component is administered orally. Studies have shown that higher colorectal cancer rates in humans are associated with higher consumption rates of red meat.

10. Molecular biologists have developed a new sequence of human genes called an ankyrin insulator sequence. A new corrected or therapeutic gene is placed within this sequence. Its role is to create an active area on a human chromosome where the new gene can work efficiently no matter what chromosome it lands on.

 
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