Hardee Transportation Case 4-2

Solution

Case 4-2 Hardee Transportation
The analysis for this case can be structured in the same manner as the truckload costing example given in the Appendix to this chapter. The analysis is as follows.
I.   Pickup: 40 miles and 4 hours
II.  Sorting: 8 hours (using 2 dock workers)
III.  Linehaul: 1249 miles and 43 hours, 48 minutes
IV.  Delivery: 15 miles and 2 hours, 30 minutes
1. What are the pickup, sort, line-haul, and delivery costs to Hardee for this move?
I.                   Pickup
1.      Depreciation: Tractor 4.0 hr.@ $2.74/hr. $10.96
Trailer 4.0 hr.@ $0.57/hr. $2.28
2.      Interest: Tractor 4.0 hr.@ $3.18/hr. $12.72
Trailer 4.0 hr.@ $0.72/hr. $2.88
3.      Fuel 4.0 miles@ $0.64/mile $2.56
4.      Labor 4.0 hr.@ $22/hr. $88.00
5.      Maintenance 40 miles@ $0.152/mile $6.08
6.      Insurance 40 miles@ $0.067/mile $2.68
7.      Billing $1.95
Total Pickup cost (Max 10 points) $130.11
II.                Sorting
1.      Labor 2 workers x 8 hr. x $22 $352.00
Total Sorting cost (Max 10 points) $352.00
III.             Linehaul
1.      Depreciation: Tractor 43.8 hr.@ $2.74/hr. $120.01
Trailer 43.8 hr.@ $0.57/hr. $24.97
2.      Interest: Tractor 43.8 hr.@ $3.18/hr. $139.28
Trailer 43.8 hr.@ $0.72/hr. $31.54
3.      Fuel 1249 miles@ $0.64/mile $799.36
4.      Labor 1249 miles@ $0.45/mile $562.05
5.      Maintenance 1249 miles@ $0.152/mile $189.85
6.      Insurance 1249 miles@ $0.067/mile $83.68
Total Linehaul cost (Max 10 points) $1,950.74
IV.             Delivery
1.      Depreciation: Tractor 2.5 hr.@ $2.74/hr. $6.85
Trailer 2.5 hr.@ $0.57/hr. $1.43
2.      Interest: Tractor 2.5 hr.@ $3.18/hr. $7.95
Trailer 2.5 hr.@ $0.72/hr. $6.85
3.      Fuel 15 miles@ $0.64/mile $9.60
4.      Labor 2.5 hr. @ $22/ hr. $55.00
5.      Maintenance 15 miles@ $0.152/mile $2.28
6.      Insurance 15 miles@ $0.067/mile $1.01
Total Delivery cost (Max 10 points) $90.96
2. What is the total cost of this move?
V.                   Total Cost
1.      Pickup, sort, linehaul, delivery $2,523.81
2.      Administrative/Overhead (10%) $252.38
Total Truckload cost (Max 10 points) $2,776.19
2b. Cost per cwt? Cost per mile
VI.               Revenue Needs
1.      Per cwt. ($2850.29/440) = $6.17 $6.31 $6.17
2.      Per revenue mile ($2776.19/1249) = $2.22 $2.22
Cost per cwt? Cost per revenue mile Max 5 points each)
3. If Hardee would put two drivers in the tractor for the line-haul move, there would be no rest required for drivers during the line-haul move. What would happen to the total costs? (Max 20 points)
Question 4. Assume that Hardee has no loaded backhaul to return the vehicle and driver to Pittsburgh. How would you account for the empty backhaul costs associated with this move? Would you include those in the headhaul move? How would this impact your pricing strategy? (Max 20 points)

Student Worksheet

Case 4-2 Hardee Transportation
The analysis for this case can be structured in the same manner as the truckload costing example given in the Appendix to this chapter. The analysis is as follows.
I.   Pickup: 40 miles and 4 hours
II.  Sorting: 8 hours (using 2 dock workers)
III.  Linehaul: 1249 miles and 43 hours, 48 minutes
IV.  Delivery: 15 miles and 2 hours, 30 minutes
1. What are the pickup, sort, line-haul, and delivery costs to Hardee for this move?
I.                   Pickup
1.      Depreciation: Tractor
Trailer
2.      Interest: Tractor
Trailer
3.      Fuel
4.      Labor
5.      Maintenance
6.      Insurance
7.      Billing
Total Pickup cost (Max 10 points) $0.00
II.                Sorting
1.      Labor
Total Sorting cost (Max 10 points) $0.00
III.             Linehaul
1.      Depreciation: Tractor
Trailer
2.      Interest: Tractor
Trailer
3.      Fuel
4.      Labor
5.      Maintenance
6.      Insurance
Total Linehaul cost (Max 10 points) $0.00
IV.             Delivery
1.      Depreciation: Tractor
Trailer
2.      Interest: Tractor
Trailer
3.      Fuel
4.      Labor
5.      Maintenance
6.      Insurance
Total Delivery cost (Max 10 points) $0.00
2. What is the total cost of this move?
V.                   Total Cost
1.      Pickup, sort, linehaul, delivery
2.      Administrative/Overhead (10%)
Total Truckload cost (Max 10 points) $0.00
2b. Cost per cwt? Cost per mile
VI.               Revenue Needs
1.      Per cwt. $0.00
2.      Per revenue mile $0.00
Cost per cwt? Cost per revenue mile Max 5 points each)
3. If Hardee would put two drivers in the tractor for the line-haul move, there would be no rest required for drivers during the line-haul move. What would happen to the total costs? (Max 20 points)
Question 4. Assume that Hardee has no loaded backhaul to return the vehicle and driver to Pittsburgh. How would you account for the empty backhaul costs associated with this move? Would you include those in the headhaul move? How would this impact your pricing strategy? (Max 20 points)
 
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SOAP Note For Differential Diagnosis For Skin Conditions

Differential Diagnosis for Skin Conditions

Properly identifying the cause and type of a patient’s skin condition involves a process of elimination known as differential diagnosis. Using this process, a health professional can take a given set of physical abnormalities, vital signs, health assessment findings, and patient descriptions of symptoms, and incrementally narrow them down until one diagnosis is determined as the most likely cause.

In this Discussion, you will examine several visual representations of various skin conditions, describe your observations, and use the techniques of differential diagnosis to determine the most likely condition.

Note: Your Discussion post should be in the SOAP (Subjective, Objective, Assessment, and Plan) note format, rather than the traditional narrative style Discussion posting format. Refer to Chapter 2 of the Sullivan text and the Comprehensive SOAP Template in this week’s Learning Resources for guidance.Remember that not all comprehensive SOAP data are included in every patient case.

To prepare:

·         Review the Skin Conditions document provided in this week’s Learning Resources, and select two conditions to closely examine for this Discussion.

·         Consider the abnormal physical characteristics you observe in the graphics you selected. How would you describe the characteristics using clinical terminologies?

·         Explore different conditions that could be the cause of the skin abnormalities in the graphics you selected.

·         Consider which of the conditions is most likely to be the correct diagnosis, and why.

A description of the two graphics you selected (identify each graphic by number). Use clinical terminologies to explain the physical characteristics featured in each graphic. Formulate a differential diagnosis of three to five possible conditions for each. Determine which is most likely to be the correct diagnosis, and explain your reasoning.

REMINDERS:

Please follow the Note above. Do SOAP note format and check it out on the uploaded file the SOAP template as your outline for your writings… No traditional essay on this assignment, again use SOAP note. Thank you.

Required Resources

Note: Because the information in this course is so vital, a large number of resources are provided in various formats to facilitate your competence in diagnosing a wide variety of health conditions. When multiple resources are available on the same topic, select those that best meet your personal learning needs to prepare you to accurately diagnose patient health problems.

 

Note: To access this week’s required library resources, please click on the link to the Course Readings List, found in the Course Materials section of your Syllabus.

Readings

·         Ball, J. W., Dains, J. E., Flynn, J. A., Solomon, B. S., & Stewart, R. W. (2015). Seidel’s guide to physical examination (8th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.

o    Chapter 8, “Skin, Hair, and Nails” (pp. 114-165)

This chapter reviews the basic anatomy and physiology of skin, hair, and nails. The chapter also describes guidelines for proper skin, hair, and nails assessments.

·         Dains, J. E., Baumann, L. C., & Scheibel, P. (2016). Advanced health assessment and clinical diagnosis in primary care (5th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.

Chapter 28, “Rashes and Skin Lesions” (pp. 325-343)

This chapter explains the steps in an initial examination of someone with dermatological problems, including the type of information that needs to be gathered and assessed.

Note: Download and use the Adult Examination Checklist and the Physical Exam Summary when you conduct your video assessment of the skin, hair, and nails.

·         Seidel, H. M., Ball, J. W., Dains, J. E., Flynn, J. A., Solomon, B. S., & Stewart, R. W. (2011). Adult examination checklist: Guide for skin, hair, and nails. In Mosby’s guide to physical examination (7th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.

This Adult Examination Checklist: Guide for Skin, Hair, and Nails was published as a companion to Seidel’s guide to physical examination (8th ed.), by Ball, J. W., Dains, J. E., & Flynn, J. A. Copyright Elsevier (2015). Fromhttps://evolve.elsevier.com/

·         Seidel, H. M., Ball, J. W., Dains, J. E., Flynn, J. A., Solomon, B. S., & Stewart, R. W. (2011). Skin, hair, and nails physical exam summary. In Mosby’s guide to physical examination (7th ed.). St. Louis, MO: Elsevier Mosby.

This Skin, Hair, and Nails Physical Exam Summary was published as a companion to Seidel’s guide to physical examination(8th ed.), by Ball, J. W., Dains, J. E., & Flynn, J. A. Copyright Elsevier (2015). Fromhttps://evolve.elsevier.com/

·         Chadha, A. (2009). Assessing the skin. Practice Nurse, 38(7), 43–48.

Retrieved from the Walden Library databases.

In this article, the author explains how to take a relevant skin health history. In addition, the article defines common terms used to describe skin lesions and rashes.

·         Ely, J. W., & Stone, M. S. (2010). The generalized rash: Part I. Differential diagnosis. American Family Physician81(6), 726–734.

Retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/2010/0315/p726.html

This article focuses on common, uncommon, and rare causes of generalized rashes. The article also specifies tests to diagnose generalized rashes.

·         Ely, J. W., & Stone, M. S. (2010). The generalized rash: Part II. Diagnostic approach. American Family Physician, 81(6), 735–739.

Retrieved from http://www.aafp.org/afp/2010/0315/p735.html

This article revolves around the diagnosis of generalized rashes. The authors describe clinical features that may help in distinguishing generalized rashes.

·         Everyday Health, Inc. (2013). Resources for dermatology and visual conditions. Retrieved fromhttp://www.skinsight.com/ info/for_professionals 

This interactive website allows you to explore skin conditions according to age, gender, and area of the body.

·         Document: Skin Conditions (Word document)

This document contains five images of different skin conditions. You will use this information in this week’s Discussion.

·         Document: Comprehensive SOAP Exemplar (Word document)

·         Document: Comprehensive SOAP Template (Word document)

Media

Online media for Seidel’s Guide to Physical Examination

In addition to this week’s media, it is highly recommended that you access and view the online resources included with the course text, Seidel’s Guide to Physical Examination. Focus on the videos and animations in Chapter 8 that relate to the assessment of the skin, hair, and nails.

The following suturing tutorials provide instruction on the basic interrupted suture, as well as the vertical and horizontal mattress suturing techniques:

·         Tulane Center for Advanced Medical Simulation & Team Training. (2010, July 8). Suturing technique.Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c-LDmCVtL0o

·         Mikheil. (2014, April 22). Basic suturing: Simple, interrupted, vertical mattress, horizontal mattress. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MFP90aQvEVM

Optional Resources

·         LeBlond, R. F., Brown, D. D., & DeGowin, R. L. (2009). DeGowin’s diagnostic examination (9th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw Hill Medical.

o    Chapter 6, “The Skin and Nails”

In this chapter, the authors provide guidelines and procedures to aid in the diagnosis of skin and nail disorders. The chapter supplies descriptions and pictures of common skin and nail conditions.

·         Ethicon, Inc. (n.d.a). Absorbable synthetic suture material. Retrieved fromhttp://academicdepartments.musc.edu/surgery/education/resident_info/supplement/suture_manuals/absorbable_suture_chart.pdf

·         Ethicon, Inc. (2006). Dermabond topical skin adhesive application technique. Retrieved fromhttp://academicdepartments.musc.edu/surgery/education/resident_info/supplement/suture_manuals/db_application_poster.pdf

·         Ethicon, Inc. (2001). Ethicon needle sales types. Retrieved fromhttp://academicdepartments.musc.edu/surgery/education/resident_info/supplement/suture_manuals/needle_template.pdf

·         Ethicon, Inc. (n.d.b). Ethicon sutures. Retrieved fromhttp://academicdepartments.musc.edu/surgery/education/resident_info/supplement/suture_manuals/suture_chart_ethicon.pdf

·         Ethicon, Inc. (2002). How to care for your wound after it’s treated with Dermabond topical skin adhesive. Retrieved fromhttp://academicdepartments.musc.edu/surgery/education/resident_info/supplement/suture_manuals/db_wound_care.pdf

·         Ethicon, Inc. (2005). Knot tying manual. Retrieved fromhttp://academicdepartments.musc.edu/surgery/education/resident_info/supplement/suture_manuals/knot_tying_manual.pdf

·         Ethicon, Inc. (n.d.c). Wound closure manual. Retrieved fromhttp://academicdepartments.musc.edu/surgery/education/resident_info/supplement/suture_m

 
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How Has Technology Influenced Ethical Decision-Making In Healthcare?

Please Answer

How has technology influenced ethical decision-making in healthcare?

After your answer, In a separate page Give your opinion on two different paragraph to Tiah Denton and Tiffany Laubach

Tiah Denton

Technology has influenced ethical decision-making in healthcare by the rapidly changing medical technology and availability of high tech and changing practices of doctors over the course of time has evolved the way healthcare is being produced today. Today’s medical technology is more advanced, more effective, and also more costly than ever before. This makes the healthcare industry have an increasing demand for high technology diagnostic facilities to have conflict with medical necessity and social justice which all ties into ethics. Current trends in health care decision making support a transition from a rationale based primarily on resources and opinion to a rationale derived from research.

It is important to recognize the impact of developing a new health care technology within the healthcare system. Demands for increased productivity despite small financial resources brings up cost effectiveness in healthcare. Most issues within decision making are cost versus benefit analysis. It is very difficult to place a dollar value on a person’s life especially when it comes to decisions made within healthcare.

The ethical issues on medical technology and availability are broad. Before any technological changes were made ethics and medicine were not often in conflict. The providing physician would attempt to save lives when he or she could, but technology was limited so this made practicing more along the lines of ethics. Now since technology is available and constantly changing, physicians have the options to keep life going for an unknown periods, undermining distinctions between life and death.

Resources

Kent DL, Larson EB. Disease, level of impact, and quality of research methods. 2012 p. 245-248

Soza H. Reducing medical errors through technology. Cost Qual 2000; p. 24-25

Tiffany Laubach 

Interpersonal relationships and data are entwined as fundamental foundations of health care. In spite of the fact that information technology (IT) has done a great deal to advance medicine, we are way off the mark to understanding its maximum capacity. To be sure, issues identified with mismanaging health information undermine relationship-focused consideration. Data innovation must be actualized in ways that save and elevate connections in consideration, while pleasing real inadequacies in overseeing data and settling on therapeutic choices. Increased coordinated efforts between specialists in IT and relationship-centered care consideration is required, alongside incorporation of relationship-based measures in informatics research.

Information technology is starting to encourage numerous connections in medicinal services. Clinicians and patients have uncommon access to health-related information data, including the nation’s bibliographic database of in excess of 12 million references to journal articles in the life sciences. Discovering health-information data is a standout among the most widely recognized employments of the web, and the present patients have turned out to be more dynamic members in the basic leadership process, frequently teaching themselves about accessible interventions identified with their therapeutic conditions preceding seeing their specialists (Ethical Analysis, 2014).

The significance of considering technology’s impact on “social, ethical, legal and other systems” was perceived early and has therefore been for the most part acknowledged. The significance of ethics in HTA depends on three bits of knowledge. To begin with, executing well-being innovations may have ethical outcomes, which legitimizes adding a moral investigation to a “customary” evaluation of expense and viability. Second, innovation additionally conveys values and may challenge common good standards or tenets of society that ought to be tended to by HTA. Third, a more principal knowledge, is that the entire HTA endeavor is esteem loaded. The objective of HTA is to enhance medicinal services, and as social insurance is esteem loaded (in endeavoring to enhance the prosperity of individuals), at that point HTA is esteem loaded as well (Weiner & Biondich, 2006).

References

Ethical analysis to improve decision-making on health technologies. (2011, March 04). Retrieved from http://www.who.int/bulletin/volumes/86/8/08-051078/en/

Weiner, M., & Biondich, P. (2006, January). Retrieved from https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1484834/

 
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• Anne Bradstreet’s Use Of The Metaphor/Extended Metaphor In “The Author To Her Book”

Surname 4

Student’s Name

Professor’s Name

Course

Date

Metaphor in The Author to Her Book

The Author to Her Book by Anne Bradstreet is a perfect representation of the author’s feelings towards her book following its publication and criticism for being an unfinished piece. Bradstreet uses the controlling metaphor in the poem to illustrate an author’s dissatisfaction with her book. In essence, she uses the leading metaphor entailing Bradstreet and her book to the association of a caring mother and her kid so as to demonstrate the complicated attitude of the author, which changes in the entire process of the work. The controlling metaphor represents the poem’s part that expresses the faults characterizing her book, which shows the author’s conflicting tone. Thus, Bradstreet uses metaphor in the poem to clearly communicate her emotions towards the publication of her works.

While Bradstreet applies extended metaphor in the poem, The Author to Her Book to stress her displeasure with the works, she demonstrates an unwillingness to abandon her original piece. In the first line, Bradstreet offers the overall description regarding her view of her own creation. For instance, she says “ill-formed offspring” to illustrate that the book is her own making and that it is flawed (Bradstreet 1). Additionally, the author expresses her feeling of embarrassment concerning the publication of her private pieces without her approval. Bradstreet feels disappointed that the works were published before they were corrected and edited. From line six to nine, the author compares the humiliation from her unperfected work to the shame that a parent experiences because of their irritable child. Moreover, Bradstreet shows her intention to delete errors in line 10 through 14 of the poem. However, she notices that it is impossible to erase errors since the poem is already printed. Line 9 through 10 demonstrates that Bradstreet is not the finest mother (Shmoop 1). The author attempts to renounce the work since it is “irksome”, meaning that the book is irritating and frustrating.

In The Author to Her Book, Bradstreet demonstrates her shame, which is manifested throughout the poem. She struggles with the aspect of her piece’s publication before perfection. In her skillful usage of extended metaphor, the author piles a complex series of parallels entailing parent and author as well as book and child, which are both creator to creation associations. As a result, the reader is emotionally connected to the author’s condition (eNotes 1). Furthermore, Bradstreet equates herself to an imperfect parent or mother through metaphor. In line 17 through 18, Bradstreet contends, “In better dress to trim thee was my mind, / But nought save homespun cloth I’th’ house I find” (Bradstreet 1). Bradstreet maintains that despite her intentions to perfect the text, she could only manage to “dress it” using homely cloth. Metaphorically, the concept implies that Bradstreet uses what is at his disposal while she recognizes that the flaws in the texts were as result of homeliness as well as her individual brain shortfalls. Overall, it can be said that the “child”/texts are flawed because of the defective mind of the creator, who is Bradstreet in this case. Bradstreet instructs the “child” in the final lines. Generally, she maintains that the “child” only has a missing mother, which is the reason why she is unable to dress in a better cloth despite her desire.

Other metaphors exist within the extended metaphor. Bradstreet illustrates that she “washed” the book’s face to suggest that she attempted to enhance the content and appearance of the book. However, Bradstreet says “And rubbing off a spot still made a flaw” to mean that she committed other blunders in the process of correcting the errors in the book (Bradstreet 1). The metaphors to illustrate Bradstreet’s activities on the work are responsible for the personification of the book as a “child”. She also uses metaphor in the last line as sending the book out of the door implies that the book is released for publication. In conclusion, extended metaphor is used in The Author to Her Book to precisely demonstrate Bradstreet’s displeasure with her book, which is released while still imperfect.

Works Cited

Bradstreet, Anne. The Author to Her Book. 1978. Available at: https://www.poets.org/poetsorg/poem/author-her-book

eNotes. What literary devices are most important in Anne Bradstreet’s poem, “The Author to Her Book”? 2011. Available at: https://www.enotes.com/homework-help/what-literary-elements-would-anne-bradstreets-poem-268355

Shmoop. The Author to Her Book by Anne Bradstreet. 2019. Available at: https://www.shmoop.com/the-author-to-her-book/mother-children-imagery.html

 
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THEO 104 QUIZ 6

Question 1 

  1. Johnathan Edwards and George      Whitefield were key figures in the Second Great Awakening.

True

False

2 points

Question 2 

  1. What is the name of the first      major division within the Christian church?

The Great Schism

The Reformation

The Great Awakening

2 points

Question 3 

  1. It was at the Council of Nicea      that the Roman Catholic Church set its doctrines in contrast with the      doctrines of the Protestant movement.

True

False

2 points

Question 4 

  1. The persecution of Christians increased      when Emperor Constantine was appointed ruler of Rome and Christianity was      proclaimed as the official religion.

True

False

2 points

Question 5 

  1. Who had a large influence and      ministry in Switzerland and wrote institutes of the Christian religion?

Martin Luther

John Calvin

Ulrich Zwingli

2 points

Question 6 

  1. The call to be a member of a      church is more than a call for participation. It is also a call for      ________.

Transformation

Initiation

Accommodation

Anticipation

2 points

Question 7 

  1. Within the New Testament,      especially within the letters of Paul, one notices that there were many      different churches within each city.

True

False

2 points

Question 8 

  1. In the Bible, Baptism is      reserved only for individuals who professed faith in the risen      Jesus.

True

False

2 points

Question 9 

  1. The Greek term ekklesia,      commonly translated “church” means, “the people of God.”

True

False

2 points

Question 10 

  1. The church has a local and global connotation.

True

False

2 points

Question 11 

  1. The Bible strictly forbids women      from holding the office of deacon.

True

False

2 points

Question 12 

  1. Which of the following is not one      of the three basic models of church government?

Protestant

Episcopalian

Presbyterian

Congregational

2 points

Question 13 

  1. The term apostle in the strict      sense of the word refers to those who accompanied Jesus throughout his      earthly ministry and who had witnessed his resurrection.

True

False

2 points

Question 14 

  1. Acts 14:23 does NOT point in the      direction of a plurality of elders as the normative practice in the early      church planting movement.

True

False

2 points

Question 15 

  1. Which of the following is not one      of the three main church offices listed in the New Testament?

Pastor

Apostle

Deacon

Bishop

2 points

Question 16 

  1. The early church did not have much      fellowship or community.

True

False

2 points

Question 17 

  1. What passage of scripture gives      insight into the routine activity of the early church?

Acts 12:3-9

Luke 24:13-34

Acts 2:41-47

None of the above

2 points

Question 18 

  1. New Testament Scripture indicates      that the church is made up mostly of nonbelievers.

True

False

2 points

Question 19 

  1. In a healthy church, church      leadership, including pastors, are exclusively responsible for      doing the work of the ministry.

True

False

2 points

Question 20 

  1. Though prayer is important, it      should not be prioritized in the church.

True

False

2 points

Question 21 

  1. __________ baptism was a baptism      of identification with sinful humanity.

John’s

Jesus’s

Christian

Paul’s

2 points

Question 22 

  1. Most theologians agree that the      purpose of the Lord’s Supper is to proclaim the significance of Jesus’s      death.

True

False

2 points

Question 23 

  1. The      major debate concerning baptism throughout church history is concerning      the recipients of baptism and the mode of baptism.

True

False

2 points

Question 24 

  1. The examples of Jesus’s baptism      and baptism in Acts bear witness to baptism by sprinkling.

True

False

2 points

Question 25 

  1. _______ communion allows any      Christian to participate in the Lord’s Supper.

Open

Close

Closed

 
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Why Is It So Important To Formulate Your Brief For A Data Presentation?

Running head: FORMULATING A DATA PRESENTATION BRIEF 1

FORMULATING A DATA PRESENTATION BRIEF3

Formulating a Data Presentation Brief

Student Name

Institution

Course

Date

A brief is a way of communicating to clients and stakeholders about the objectives of a business and what the business aims to achieve at the end. Formulating a brief provides information to clients and partners and thus it is important to provide the right information in a proper manner for the best results (Brigham, 2016). An effective data presentation brief utilizes the relationship between the presenter and the clients and ensures that it puts data in a clear and concise manner which is able to draw the attention of the audience and make them comprehend the data (Kirk, 2016). Data presentations may contain large volumes of variable data and using the right method to formulate a brief determines the ease with which the audience is able to understand, visualize the data and create interest in the project.

One of the methods of formulating an effective data presentation brief is through the use of charts. Charts provide an interesting way of presenting data to an audience. Charts have an advantage when presenting a data brief in that they enable presenters to display data in ways that are appealing to the audience (Kirk, 2016). This is because different charts like bar graphs can use different colors that are appealing which help to capture the attention of the audience (Kirk, 2016). In addition, bar graphs are easy to read, interpret and understand at a glance. One of the disadvantage of using charts as a method of presenting data briefs is that focusing on the visual aspects of charts as a way to make them attractive to the audience may end up camouflaging the data being presented which can make the audience to miss the objectives (Brigham, 2016). In addition, presenting complex data on charts may be boring to the audience. Another limitation with the use of charts such as pie charts is that they are limited to the number of variables that they can display and therefore, if the data contains numerous variables, they become inappropriate.

Using a Tedtalk can help in presenting data statistics to an audience. This is normally accompanied by some data slides. This method gives the presenter a golden opportunity to be more convincing to the audience through their display of confidence (Brigham, 2016). The presentation can win over the audience depending on the credibility of the speaker. This method might be a disadvantage if the presenter has poor communication skills and lack of confidence. Talking might also get the audience bored and make them fail to visualize the data.

The method of formulating a data brief presentation is very critical to the success of a presentation in terms of the ease in which the audience is able to visualize and comprehend the data and therefore presenters to select a method whose benefits outweigh the disadvantages in order to communicate effectively to the audiences.

References

Brigham, T. J. (2016). Feast for the eyes: an introduction to data visualization. Medical reference services quarterly35(2), 215-223.

Kirk, A. (2016). Data Visualisation: A Handbook for Data Driven Design. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, Ltd.

 
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NURS 6050 Assignment: Agenda Comparison Grid And Fact Sheet Or Talking Points Brief

It may seem to you that healthcare has been a national topic of debate among political leaders for as long as you can remember.

Healthcare has been a policy item and a topic of debate not only in recent times but as far back as the administration of the second U.S. president, John Adams. In 1798, Adams signed legislation requiring that 20 cents per month of a sailor’s paycheck be set aside for covering their medical bills. This represented the first major piece of U.S. healthcare legislation, and the topic of healthcare has been woven into presidential agendas and political debate ever since.

As a healthcare professional, you may be called upon to provide expertise, guidance and/or opinions on healthcare matters as they are debated for inclusion into new policy. You may also be involved in planning new organizational policy and responses to changes in legislation. For all of these reasons you should be prepared to speak to national healthcare issues making the news.

In this Assignment, you will analyze recent presidential healthcare agendas. You also will prepare a fact sheet to communicate the importance of a healthcare issue and the impact on this issue of recent or proposed policy.

To Prepare:

  • Review the agenda priorities of the current/sitting U.S. president and the two previous presidential administrations.
  • Select an issue related to healthcare that was addressed by each of the last three U.S. presidential administrations.
  • Reflect on the focus of their respective agendas, including the allocation of financial resources for addressing the healthcare issue you selected.
  • Consider how you would communicate the importance of a healthcare issue to a legislator/policymaker or a member of their staff for inclusion on an agenda.

The Assignment: (1- to 2-page Comparison Grid, 1-Page Analysis, and 1-page Fact Sheet)

Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid

Use the Agenda Comparison Grid Template found in the Learning Resources and complete the Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid based on the current/sitting U.S. president and the two previous presidential administrations and their agendas related to the public health concern you selected. Be sure to address the following:

  • Identify and provide a brief description of the population health concern you selected and the factors that contribute to it.
  • Describe the administrative agenda focus related to the issue you selected.
  • Identify the allocations of financial and other resources that the current and two previous presidents dedicated to this issue.
  • Explain how each of the presidential administrations approached the issue.

(A draft of Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid should be posted to the Module 1 Discussion Board by Day 3 of Week 1.)

Part 2: Agenda Comparison Grid Analysis

Using the information you recorded in Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid on the template, complete the Part 2: Agenda Comparison Grid Analysis portion of the template, by addressing the following:

  • Which administrative agency would most likely be responsible for helping you address the healthcare issue you selected?
  • How do you think your selected healthcare issue might get on the agenda for the current and two previous presidents? How does it stay there?
  • Who would you choose to be the entrepreneur/ champion/sponsor of the healthcare issue you selected for the current and two previous presidents?

Part 3: Fact Sheet or Talking Points Brief

Based on the feedback that you received from your colleagues in the Discussion, revise Part 1: Agenda Comparison Grid and Part 2: Agenda Comparison Grid Analysis.

Then, using the information recorded on the template in Parts 1 and 2, develop a 1-page Fact Sheet or Talking Points Brief that you could use to communicate with a policymaker/legislator or a member of their staff for this healthcare issue. You can use Microsoft Word or PowerPoint to create your Fact Sheet or Talking Point Brief. Be sure to address the following:

  • Summarize why this healthcare issue is important and should be included in the agenda for legislation.
  • Justify the role of the nurse in agenda setting for healthcare issues.
 
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Lab5 Questions

Custom Lab Manual   UMUC Physical Science NSCI  101/103

© 2012, eScience Labs LLC  All rights reserved

www.eciencelabs.com ● 888‐375‐5487

3

Table of Contents

Custom Lab Manual for Physical Science NSCI 101/103      Lab 1: Introduc on to Science    Lab 2: Types of Forces     Lab 3: Newton’s Laws    Lab 4: Acids & Bases    Lab 5: Chemical Processes        Lab 6: Light    Lab 7: Radioac vity

4

Time and Addi onal Materials Required

Time and Addi onal Materials Required for Each Lab

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science    o  Time Required: 60 minutes     o  Addi onal Materials Needed: None      Lab 2: Types of Forces    o  Time Required: 60 minutes    o  Addi onal Materials Needed: None      Lab 3: Newton’s Laws    o  Time Required: 60 minutes    o  Addi onal Materials Needed: A deep dish, water, 2 chairs (for  supports)

Lab 4: Acids and Bases

o  Time: 60 min.     o  Materials needed: Tomato juice, dis lled water, milk

Lab 5: Chemical Processes

o  Time: 60 min.    o  Materials needed: none      Lab 6: Light    o  Time Required: 45‐60 minutes    o  Addi onal Materials Needed: White paper      Lab 7: Radioac vity    o  Time Required: 45‐60 minutes    o  Addi onal Materials Needed: None

5

Lab Safety

Lab Safety  Always follow the instruc ons in your laboratory manual and these general rules:

Lab prepara on

 Please thoroughly read the lab exercise before star ng!

 If you have any doubt as to what you are supposed to be doing and how to do it safely,  please STOP and then:

Double‐check the manual instruc ons.

Check www.esciencelabs.com for updates and  ps.

Contact us for technical support by phone at 1‐888‐ESL‐Kits (1‐888‐375‐5487) or by  email at Help@esciencelabs.com.

 Read and understand all labels on chemicals.

If you have any ques ons or concerns, refer to the Material Safely Data Sheets  (MSDS) available at www.esciencelabs.com. The MSDS  lists the dangers, storage  requirements, exposure treatment and disposal instruc ons for each chemical.

 Consult your physician if you are pregnant, allergic to chemicals, or have other medical  condi ons that may require addi onal protec ve measures.

Proper lab a re

 Remove all loose clothing (jackets, sweatshirts, etc.) and always wear closed‐toe shoes.

 Long hair should be pulled back and secured and all jewelry (rings, watches, necklaces,  earrings, bracelets, etc.), should be removed.

 Safety glasses or goggles should be worn at all  mes. In addi on, wearing so  contact  lenses while conduc ng experiments is discouraged, as they can absorb  poten ally  harmful chemicals.

eScience Labs, LLC designs every kit with safety as our top priority.  Nonetheless, these are science kits and contain items which must be

handled with care. Safety in the laboratory always comes first!

6

Lab Safety

 When handling chemicals, always wear the protec ve goggles, gloves, and apron       provided.

Performing the experiment

 Do not eat, drink, chew gum, apply cosme cs or smoke while conduc ng an experi‐ ment.

 Work in a well ven lated area and monitor experiments at all  mes, unless instructed  otherwise.

 When working with chemicals:

Never return unused chemicals to their original container or place chemicals in an                        unmarked container.

Always put lids back onto chemicals immediately a er use.

Never ingest chemicals.  If this occurs, seek immediate help.

Call 911 or “Poison Control” 1‐800‐222‐1222

 Never pipe e anything by mouth.

 Never leave a heat source una ended.

If there is a fire, evacuate the room immediately and dial 911.

Lab Clean‐up and Disposal

  If a spill occurs, consult the MSDS to determine how to clean it up.

 Never pick up broken glassware with your hands.  Use a broom and a dustpan and dis‐ card in a safe area.

 Do not use any part of the lab kit as a container for food.

 Safely dispose of chemicals.  If there are any special requirements for disposal, it will  be noted in the lab manual.

 When finished, wash hands and lab equipment thoroughly with soap and water.

Above all, USE COMMON SENSE!

7

Student Portal

Introduc on  o   Safety Video  o   Scien fic Method Video

Newtonian Mechanics

o  The Science of Sailing Video  o  The Moving Man  o  Slam Dunk Science  o  The Science of Skateboarding  o  Projec le Mo on  o  Ladybug Revolu on  o  Energy Skate Park

Chemistry and Light

o  Acid base reac ons  o Geometric Op cs

 

Log on to the Student Portal using these  easy steps:

Visit our website, www.esciencelabs.com,  and click on the green bu on  (says

“Register or Login”) on the top right side  of the page.  From here, you will be taken  to a login page. If you are registering your  kit code for the first  me, click the “create  an account” hyperlink. Locate the kitcode,  located on a label on the inside of the kit  box lid. Enter this, along with other re‐

quested informa on into the online form  to create your user account. Be sure to  keep track of your username and pass‐

word as this is how you will enter the Stu‐ dent Portal for future visits. This establish‐ es your account with the eScience Labs’

Student Portal.    Have fun!

Student Portal Content

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

11

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

What is science? You have likely taken several classes throughout your career as a student, and know that it  is more than just chapters in a book. Science is a process. It uses evidence to understand the history of the  natural world and how it works. Scien fic knowledge is constantly evolving as we understand more about the  natural world. Science begins with observa ons that can be measured in some way, and o en concludes with  observa ons from analyzed data.

Following the scien fic method helps to minimize bias when tes ng a theory. It helps scien sts collect and  organize informa on in a useful way so that pa erns and data can be analyzed in a meaningful way. As a sci‐ en st, you should use the scien fic method as you conduct the experiments throughout this manual.

Concepts to explore:   The Scien fic Method

 Observa ons

 Hypothesis

 Variables

 Controls

 Data Analysis

 Unit Conversions

 Scien fic Nota on

 Significant Digits

 Data Collec on

 Tables

 Graphs

 Percent Error

 Scien fic Reasoning

 Wri ng a Lab Report

Figure 1: The process of the scien fic method

12

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

The process of the scien fic method begins with an observa on. For ex‐ ample, suppose you observe a plant growing towards a window. This ob‐ serva on could be the first step in designing an experiment. Remember  that observa ons are used to begin the scien fic method, but they may  also be used to help analyze data.

Observa ons can be quan ta ve (measurable), or qualita ve  (immeasurable; observa onal). Quan ta ve observa ons allow us to rec‐ ord findings as data, and leave li le room for subjec ve error. Qualita ve  observa ons cannot be measured. They rely on sensory percep ons. The  nature of these observa ons makes them more subjec ve and suscep ble  to human error.

Lets review this with an example. Suppose you have a handful of pennies. You can make quan ta ve observa‐ ons that there are 15 pennies, and each is 1.9 cm in diameter. Both the quan ty, and the diameter, can be pre‐

cisely measured. You can also make qualita ve observa ons that they are brown, shiny, or smooth. The color and  texture are not numerically measured, and may vary based on the individual’s percep on or background.

Quan ta ve observa ons are generally preferred in science  because they involve “hard” data. Because of this, many sci‐ en fic instruments, such as microscopes and scales, have  been developed to alleviate the need for qualita ve observa‐ ons. Rather than observing that an object is large, we can

now iden fy specific mass, shapes, structures, etc.

There are s ll many situa ons, as you will encounter throughout this lab manual, in which qualita ve observa‐ ons provide useful data. No cing the color change of a leaf or the change in smell of a compound, for example,

are important observa ons and can provide a great deal of prac cal informa on.

Once an observa on has been made, the next step is to develop a hypothesis. A hypothesis is a statement de‐ scribing what the scien st thinks will happen in the experiment. A hypothesis is a proposed explana on for an  event based on observa on(s).  A null hypothesis is a testable statement that if proven true, means the hypothe‐ sis was incorrect.  Both a hypothesis and a null hypothesis statement must be testable, but only one can be true.  Hypotheses are typically wri en in an if/then format. For example:

Hypothesis:

If plants are grown in soil with added nutrients, then they will grow faster than plants grown without  added nutrients.

If plants grow quicker when nutrients are added,  then the hypothesis is accepted and the null

hypothesis is rejected.

Figure 2: What affects plant growth?

13

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

Null hypothesis:

If plants are grown in soil with added nutrients, then they will grow at the same rate as  plants grown in soil without nutrients.

There are eon many ways to test a hypothesis. However, three rules must always be followed for results to be valid.

 The experiment must be replicable.

 Only test one variable at a  me.

 Always include a control.

Experiments must be replicable to create valid theories. In other words, an  experiment must provide precise results over mul ple trials Precise results  are those which have very similar values (e.g., 85, 86, and 86.5) over mul ‐ ple trials. By contrast, accurate results are those which demonstrate what  you expected to happen (e.g., you expect the test results of three students  tests to be 80%, 67%, and 100%). The following example demonstrates the  significance of experimental repeatability. Suppose you conduct an experiment and conclude that ice melts in 30 seconds when placed on a burner,

but you do not record your procedure or define  the precise variables included. The conclusion  that you draw will not be recognized in the scien‐ fic community because other sciensts cannot

repeat your experiment and find the same results. What if another scien st  tries to repeat your ice experiment, but does not turn on the burner; or, uses a larger ice chunk. The results will not be the same, because the experi‐ ment was not repeated using the same procedure. This makes the results  invalid, and demonstrates why it is important for an experiment to be repli‐ cable.

 

Variables are defined, measurable components of an experiment. Controlling variables in an experiment allows the scien st to quan fy changes that occur. This allows for focused results to be meas‐ ured; and, for refined conclusions to be drawn. There are two types of variables, independent variables  and dependent variables.

Independent variables are variables that sciensts select to change. For example, the  me of day,  amount of substrate, etc. Independent variables are used by scien sts to test hypotheses. There can

If plants grow quicker when nutrients are added,  then the hypothesis is accepted and the null

hypothesis is rejected.

Accurate results all hit the  bulls‐eye on a target.

Precise results may not hit  the bulls‐eye, but they all

hit the same region.

14

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

only be one independent variable in each experiment. This is because if a change occurs, scien sts  need to be able to pinpoint the cause of the change. Independent variables are always placed on the x‐ axis of a chart or graph.

 

Dpendent variables are variables that scien sts observe in rela onship to the independent variable.  Common examples of this are rate of reac on, color change, etc. Any changes observed in the dependent variable are caused by the changes in the independent variable. In other words, they depend on  the independent variable. There can be more than one dependent variable in an experiment. Dependent variables are placed on the y‐axis of a chart or graph.

A control is a sample of data collected in an experiment that is not exposed to the independent variable. The control sample reflects the factors that could influence the results of the experiment, but do  not reflect the planned changes that might result from manipula ng the independent variable. Con‐ trols must be iden fied to eliminate compounding changes that could influence results. O en, the  hardest part of designing an experiment is determining how to isolate the independent variable and  control all other possible variables. Scien sts must be careful not to eliminate or create a factor that  could skew the results. For this reason, taking notes to account for uniden fied variables is important.  This might include factors such as temperature, humidity,  me of day, or other environmental condions that may impact results.

There are two types of controls, posive and negative. Negative controls are data samples in which  you expect no change to occur. They help scien sts determine that the experimental results are due to  the independent variable, rather than an uniden fied or unaccounted variable. For example, suppose  you need to culture bacteria and want to include a nega ve control. You could create this by streaking  a sterile loop across an agar plate. Sterile loops should not create any microbial growth; therefore, you  expect no change to occur on the agar plate. If no growth occurs, you can assume the equipment used  was sterile. However, if microbial growth does occur, you must assume that the equipment was con‐ taminated prior to the experiment and must redo the experiment with new materials.

Alterna vely, posi ve controls are data samples in which you do expect a change. Let’s return to the  growth example, but now you need to create a posi ve control. To do this, you now use a loop to  streak a plate with a sample that you know grows well on agar (such as E. coli). If the bacteria grow,  you can assume that the bacteria sample and agar are both suitable for the experiment. However, if  the bacteria do not grow, you must assume that the agar or bacteria has been compromised and you  must re‐do the experiment with new materials.

15

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

The scien fic method also requires data collec on. This may reflect what occurred before, during, or  a er an experiment. Collected results help reveal experimental results. Results should include all rele‐ vant observa ons, both quan ta ve and qualita ve.

A er results are collected, they can be analyzed. Data analysis o en involves a variety of calcula ons,  conversions, graphs, tables etc. The most common task a scien st faces is unit conversion. Units of  me are a common increment that must be converted. For example, suppose half of your data is meas‐

ured in seconds, but the other half is measured in minutes. It will be difficult to understand the rela‐ onship between the data if the units are not equivalent.

When calcula ng a unit conversion, significant digits must be accounted for. Significant digits are the  digits in a number or answer that describe how precise the value actually is. Consider the following  rules:

Addi on and subtrac on problems should result in an answer that has the same number of significant  decimal places as the least precise number in the calcula on. Mul plica on and division problems  should keep the same total number of significant digits as the least precise number in the calcula on.  For example:

Addi on Problem: 12.689 + 5.2 = 17.889 → round to 18

Mul plica on Problem: 28.8 x 54.76 = 1577.088 → round to 1580 (3 sig. digits)

Rule  Example

Any non‐zero number (1‐9) is always significant  45 has two significant digits

3.99 has three significant digits  248678 has six significant digits

Any  me a zero appears between significant num‐ bers, the zero is significant

4005 has four significant digits  0.34000000009 has eleven significant digits

Zeros that are ending numbers a er a decimal  point or zeros that are a er significant numbers

before a decimal point are significant

45.00 has four significant digits  15000.00 has seven significant digits

Zeros that are used as placeholders are NOT sig‐ nificant digits

62000000 has only two significant digits  .0000000897 has only three significant digits

A ze

16

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

Scien fic nota on is another common method used to transform a number. Scien fic data is o en very  large (e.g., the speed of light) or very small (e.g., the diameter of a cell). Scien fic nota on provides an  abbreviated expression of a number, so that scien sts don’t get caught up coun ng a long series of  zeroes.

There are three parts to scien fic nota on: the base, the coefficient and the exponent. Base 10 is al‐ most always used and makes the nota on easy to translate. The coefficient is always a number be‐ tween 1 and 10, and uses the significant digits of the original number. The exponent tells us whether  the number is greater or less than 1, and can be used to “count” the number of digits the decimal must  be moved to translate the number to regular nota on. A nega ve exponent tells you to move the deci‐ mal to the le , while a posi ve one tells you to move it to the right.

For example, the number 5,600,000 can be wri en as 5.6 x 106. If you mul ply 5.6 by 10 six  mes, you  will arrive at 5,600,000. Note the exponent, six, is posi ve because the number is larger than one. Al‐ terna ve, the number 0.00045 must be wri en using a nega ve exponent. To write this number in sci‐ en fic nota on, determine the coefficient. Remember that the coefficient must be between 1 and 10.  The significant digits are 4 and 5. Therefore, 4.5 is the coefficient. To determine the exponent, count  how many places you must move the decimal over to create the original number. Moving to the le ,  we have 0.45, 0.045, 0.0045, and finally 0.00045. Since we move the decimal 4 places to the le , our  exponent is ‐4. Wri en in scien fic nota on, we have 4.5 x 10‐4

Although these calcula ons may feel laborious, a well‐calculated presenta on can transform data into  a format that scien sts can more easily understand and learn from. Some of the most common meth‐ ods of data presenta on are:

Table: A well‐organized summary of data collected. Tables should display any informa on relevant to  the hypothesis. Always include a clearly stated  tle, labeled columns and rows, and measurement  units.

Variable  Height Wk. 1 (mm)  Height Wk. 2 (mm)  Height Wk. 3 (mm)  Height Wk. 4 (mm)

Control   (without nutrients)  3.4  3.6  3.7

4.0

Independent   (with nutrients)

3.5  3.7  4.1  4.6

Table Example: Plant Growth With and Without Added Nutrients

17

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

Graph: A visual representa on of the rela onship between the independent and dependent variable.  They are typically created by using data from a table. Graphs are useful in iden fying trends and illus‐ tra ng findings. When construc ng a graph, it is important to use appropriate, consistent numerical  intervals. Titles and axes labels should also reflect the data table informa on. There are several differ‐ ent types of graphs, and each type serves a different purpose. Examples include line graphs or bar  graphs. Line graphs show the rela onship between variables using plo ed points that are connected  with a line.  There must be a direct rela onship and dependence between each point connected.  More  than one set of data can be presented on a line graph. By comparison, bar graphs: compare results that  are independent from each other, as opposed to a con nuous series.

Speed (kph)

Figure 4: Top speed for Cars A, B, C, and D

Figure 3: Plant growth, with and without nutrients,  over  me

Height   (mm)

18

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

A er compiling the data, scien sts analyze the data to determine if the experiment supports or re‐ futes the hypothesis. If the hypothesis is supported, you may want to consider addi onal variables  that should be examined. If your data does not provide clear results, you may want to consider run‐ ning addi onal trials or revising the procedure to create a more precise outcome.

One way to analyze data is to calculate percent error. Many experiments perform trials which calcu‐ late known value. When this happens, you can compare experimental results to known values and cal‐ culate percent error. Low percent error indicates that results are accurate, and high percent error indi‐ cates that results are inaccurate. The formula for percent error is:

Note that the brackets in the numerator indicate “absolute value”. This means that the number in the  equa on is always posi ve.

Suppose your experiment involves gravity. Your experimental results indicate that the speed of gravity  is 10.1 m/s2, but the known value for gravity is 9.8 m/s2. We can calculate the percent error through  the following steps:

The scien fic method gives us a great founda on to conduct scien fic reasoning. The more data and  observa ons we are able to make, the more we are able to accurately reason through the natural phe‐ nomena which occur in our daily lives. Scien fic reasoning does not always include a structured lab  report, but it always helps society to think through difficult concepts and determine solu ons. For ex‐ ample, scien fic reasoning can be used to create a response to the changing global climate, develop  medical solu ons to health concerns, or even learn about subatomic par cles and tendencies.

Although the scien fic method and scien fic reasoning can guide society through cri cal or abstract  thinking, the scien fic industry typically promotes lab reports as a universal method of data analysis  and presenta on. In general terms, a lab report is a scien fic paper describing the premise of an ex‐ periment, the procedures taken, and the results of the study. They provide a wri en record of what

Percent Error = |(Experimental—Actual)|   x 100%        Actual

Percent Error =          |(10.1 m/s2 ‐ 9.8 m/s2)|       x 100%        (9.8 m/s2)

Percent Error =     |0.3 |    x 100%     (Note the units cancel each other out)       (9.8 )

Percent Error = 0.0306 x 100% = 3.1%   (Remember the significant digits)

19

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

took place to help others learn and expedite future experimental pro‐ cesses. Though most lab reports go unpublished, it is important to  write a report that accurately characterizes the experiment per‐ formed.

Title  A short statement summarizing the topic

Abstract  A brief summary of the methods, results and conclusions.  It should not exceed 200 words and should be the last part wri en.

Introduc on

An overview of why the experiment was conducted.  It should include:   Background ‐ Provide an overview of what is already known and what ques ons re‐

main unresolved.  Be sure the reader is given enough informa on to know why and  how the experiment was performed.

 Objec ve ‐ Explain the purpose of the experiment (i.e. “I want to determine if taking  baby aspirin every day prevents second heart a acks.”)

 Hypothesis ‐ This is your “guess” as to what will happen when you do the experiment.

Materials and Methods  A detailed descrip on of what was used to conduct the experiment, what was actually  done (step by step) and how it was done. The descrip on should be exact enough that  someone reading the report can replicate the experiment.

Results  Data and observa ons obtained during the experiment. This sec on should be clear and  concise. Tables and graphs are o en appropriate in this sec on. Interpreta ons should not  be included here.

Discussion

Data interpreta ons and experimental conclusions.   Discuss the meaning of your findings. Look for common themes, rela onships and

points that perhaps generate more ques ons.   When appropriate, discuss outside factors (i.e. temperature,  me of day, etc.) that

may have played a role in the experiment.   Iden fy what could be done to control for these factors in future experiments.

Conclusion  A short, concise summary that states what has been learned.

References  Any ar cles, books, magazines, interviews, newspapers, etc. that were used to support  your background, experimental protocols, discussions and conclusions.

Part of the Lab Report  Purpose

Figure 5: Lab reports are an important  part of science, providing a way to

report conclusions and ideas.

20

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

Exercise 1: Data Interpreta on

Dissolved oxygen is oxygen that is trapped in a fluid, such as water. Since virtually every living organ‐ ism requires oxygen to survive, it is a necessary component of water systems such as streams, lakes  and rivers in order to support aqua c life. The dissolved oxygen is measured in units of ppm—or parts  per million. Examine the data in Table 2 showing the amount of dissolved oxygen present and the  number of fish observed in the body of water the sample was taken from; finally, answer the ques‐ ons below.

Ques ons  1.  What pa erns do you observe based on the informa on in Table 2?

2.  Develop a hypothesis rela ng to the amount of dissolved oxygen measured in the water sample  and the number of fish observed in the body of water.

3.  What would your experimental approach be to test this hypothesis?

4.  What would be the independent and dependent variables?

5.  What would be your controls?

Dissolved Oxygen  (ppm)  0  2  4  6

Number of Fish  Observed  0  1  3  10

8

12

10

13

12

15

14

10

16

12

18

13

Table 2: Water Quality vs. Fish Popula on

21

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

6.  What type of graph would be appropriate for this data set?  Why?

7.  Graph the data from Table 2: Water Quality vs. Fish Popula on (found at the beginning of this  experiment).

8.  Interpret the data from the graph made in Ques on 7.

Exercise 2: Testable Observa ons  Determine which of the following observa ons are testable.  For those that are testable:

Determine if the observa on is qualita ve or quan ta ve  Write a hypothesis and null hypothesis  What would be your experimental approach?  What are the dependent and independent variables?  What are your controls ‐ both posi ve and nega ve?  How will you collect your data?  How will you present your data (charts, graphs, types)?  How will you analyze your data?

Observa ons  1.  When a plant is placed on a window sill, it grows 3 inches faster per day than when it is placed on

a coffee table in the middle of the living room.  Quan ta ve

2.  The teller at the bank with brown hair and brown eyes is taller than the other tellers.

22

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

3.  When Sally eats healthy foods and exercises regularly, her blood pressure is 10 points lower than  when she does not exercise and eats fa y foods.

4.  The Italian restaurant across the street closes at 9 pm but the one two blocks away closes at 10  pm.

5.  For the past two days, the clouds have come out at 3 pm and it has started raining at 3:15 pm.

6.  George did not sleep at all the night following the start of daylight savings.

Exercise 3: Conversion

For each of the following, convert each value into the designated units.

1.  46,756,790 mg = _______ kg

2.  5.6 hours = ________ seconds

3.  13.5 cm = ________ inches

4.  47 °C = _______ °F

Exercise 4: Accuracy and Precision

For the following, determine whether the informa on is accurate, precise, both or neither.

1.  During gym class, four students decided to see if they could beat the norm of 45 sit‐ups in a mi‐ nute. The first student did 64 sit‐ups, the second did 69, the third did 65, and the fourth did 67.

2.  The average score for the 5th grade math test is 89.5.  The top 4th graders took the test and

23

Lab 1: Introduc on to Science

scored 89, 93, 91 and 87.

3.  Yesterday the temperature was 89 °F, tomorrow it’s supposed to be 88°F and the next day it’s  supposed to be 90°F, even though the average for September is only 75°F degrees!

4.  Four friends decided to go out and play horseshoes. They took a picture  of their results shown to the right:

5.  A local grocery store was holding a contest to see who could most closely  guess the number of pennies that they had inside a large jar.  The first six  people guessed the numbers 735, 209, 390, 300, 1005 and 689.  The gro‐ cery clerk said the jar actually contains 568 pennies.

 

Exercise 5: Significant Digits and Scien fic Nota on

Part 1: Determine the number of significant digits in each number and write out the specific signifi‐ cant digits.

1.  405000

2.  0.0098

3.  39.999999

4.  13.00

5.  80,000,089

6.  55,430.00

7.  0.000033

8.  620.03080

Part 2: Write the numbers below in scien fic nota on, incorpora ng what you know about signifi‐ cant digits.

1.  70,000,000,000

2.  0.000000048

3.  67,890,000

4.  70,500

5.  450,900,800

6.  0.009045

7.  0.023

  Lab 2: Types of Forces

27

Lab 2: Types of Forces

Moon is an elementary concept of physics.  It is what happens when an object changes posi on and is  produced by a force (a push or pull on the object).  Kinema cs is the study of how things move.  Be‐ cause we deal so much with moving objects in the world, kinema cs is one of the most important and  visual areas in physics.     It is important to remember that mo on is rela ve. Even when we stand s ll, we are s ll moving. The  Earth that we stand on is rota ng and thus we are s ll moving. Nonetheless, it is of great value to  measure how things move. Velocity is a measure of how fast something is moving in a specific direc on  (velocity is commonly called speed, but the two terms have an important difference).  Expressed as a  ra o, velocity is the distance an object covers over an elapsed  me. Since we don’t know how much  the object has accelerated or decelerated in between measurements, this ra o will give us an average  velocity:

Figure 1: Surprisingly, light and heavy objects fall at the same rate when there is no  air resistance. If these two objects were dropped in a vacuum, both would hit the

ground at the same  me.

Concepts to explore:   Kinema cs   Types of forces   Velocity   Accelera on   Balanced/unbalanced forces   Free body diagrams

 Net force   Equilibrium

v  =  Δx           Δt

28

Lab 2: Types of Forces

Here, the value Δx is called the displacement, which is another word for the total change in posi on  measured in a straight line from an object’s star ng point to its ending point. (Note: Δ is the Greek  symbol for ‘change’ and represents a calcula on of the final measurement subtracted by the ini al  measurement). Velocity can be measured as an average over  me—as above—or at a single moment  (instantaneous velocity).  Velocity differs from our normal understanding of speed in that it requires a  known direc on. For example, if a car is driving 30 mph at a moment in  me we know its speed; but, if  we say it is going 30 mph west, we know the velocity at that point.      Constant velocity requires both constant speed and constant direc on. Accelera on occurs when an  object undergoes a change in velocity. Therefore, accelera on occurs when an object’s speed, direc‐ on of travel, or both change :

When you press the gas pedal in your car while driving on a straight road, you will experience linear  accelera on. The force of the seat pressing against your back indicates this change in velocity. If you  are driving around a turn, your speed may be constant but your direc on is changing. Fric on between  the road and your  res is causing you to accelerate into a new direc on of mo on.                           All accelera ons are caused by forces—more specifically, unbalanced forces. There are many types of  forces that can act on an object, characterized by the type of interac on between objects.

 Applied force is the force exerted on the object by a person or another object.    Gravita onal force is a force of a rac on between two masses. The size of the gravita on‐

al force depends on the size of the masses and the distance between them                 (Fgravity=m ·g). Gravity is a long‐range force which is rela vely weak, but it can have great  effects when objects are very massive—such as planets!

 An electromagne c force is a force that occurs between charged objects. Like gravity, elec‐ tromagne c  forces can act at long ranges. These forces are very powerful even if the par ‐ cles involved do not have much mass. Atomic nuclei are held together by electromagne c  forces.

 The normal force is the support force exerted on an object when it is in contact with an‐ other sta onary object. The normal force is the force exerted upward by the ground on  your feet (or whatever you are standing on) that keeps you from falling through the sur‐ face.

 Fric onal forces act to oppose the mo on of an object. No surface is perfectly smooth at a   microscopic scale. Fric on occurs when two surfaces are pressed together and molecules

Figure 2: Scalar quan es express magnitudes, while vector quan es ex‐ press magnitude and direc on.

Scalar:            Average Speed = 10 m/s

Vector:            Velocity = 10 m/s at 30°

a  =  Δv           Δt

29

Lab 2: Types of Forces

on each surface collide, impeding each other’s mo on. A specialized fric on force when an  object is in free fall is air resistance, which is affected by the speed of an object and its  cross‐sec onal area. Though it can never cause an object to move, it can check or stop mo‐ on. As resistance, fric on wastes power, creates heat and causes wear. It has been shown

that the force required to slide one object over another is propor onal to the normal force  pressing the surfaces together, expressed by the equa on shown below:                    Ff = μFN  where μ is called the coefficient of fric on and represents the roughness of the surfaces in  contact.  There are two types of fric on, sta c (not moving) fric on and kine c (moving)  fric on. They have unique coefficients of fric on, μs and  μk, respec vely. In general, μs ≥ μk.

 Tensile forces are transmi ed through an  object when opposing forces pull at op‐ posite ends. The tension force pulls  equally on the object from the opposite  ends.

 Spring forces are exerted on an object by  a compressed or stretched spring. The  spring acts to restore its original or equi‐ librium posi on. For most springs, the  magnitude of the force is directly propor‐ onal to the stretch or compression of

the spring, expressed by the equa on  below:

Fs=‐k∆x     The SI unit for force is the Newton (N), where 1 N = 1  kg·m/s2 (the lb is the English unit). In other words, it  takes 1 N of force to accelerate a 1 kg mass by 1 m/s2.  If you are given a mass in kilograms, all you need to  do to find the force (N) is to mul ply the mass by the accelera on due to gravity, g = 9.8 m/s2.  Take a  look at Figure 5 for an example. Another measurement of force you are familiar with is the pound (lb),  but scien sts usually s ck with the SI units of measurement.    When a number of forces act on an object at once, it is helpful to draw a free body diagram (FBD). Free  body diagrams show all the forces ac ng on an object as arrows. For now, we will only talk about forc‐ es that point in the horizontal or ver cal direc ons. Since forces are vector quan es, when they add  together we must take into account both magnitude and direc on. For example, if a 5 N force acts to  the le  on an object, and at the same  me an 8 N force acts to the right, the total force or net force  would be 3 N to the right. Using FBDs, you can visualize which forces will cancel others out.     When you draw a FBD, each object of interest is drawn (you can draw the object, or even a box or  point to represent the object), and each force is represented by an arrow.  The length of the arrow rep‐ resents that magnitude of the force, and the direc on of the arrow indicates the direc on the force is  ac ng upon the object. This way, you can visualize which forces will cancel out others, leaving a total  net force in one direc on. If all the forces cancel each other out (for instance, equal but opposite forc‐ es in the ver cal and horizontal direc ons) the object is said to be in sta c equilibrium—the net force is  equal to zero, even though there are many forces ac ng at once.

Figure 3: Despite gravity’s weakness as a force, it is  responsible for the ball shape of planets and stars,  and for the shape of galaxies. Masses within these  structures a ract every other bit of mass within

the object, which creates their ball shape.

30

Lab 2: Types of Forces

Consider a book si ng on a table.  If you apply a force to slide it across the table to your study partner,  there are actually four forces involved in the mo on. The FBD would involve the normal force, gravity,  the applied force and fric on, and the diagram is shown in Figure 4.  The normal force arrow is drawn  perpendicular to the surface, directly opposite the force of gravity in this case. We know the object is  not moving in the ver cal direc on, so the ver cal forces are equal but in opposite direc ons and can‐ cel out on the net force diagram. Since enough force was applied to overcome fric on and move the  book, we draw the applied force arrow longer than the fric onal force arrow that acts to resist mo on.  The applied force is greater than the fric on force, so the net force is in the direc on of the applied  force. This object will accelerate to the right. When an object is not moving in the horizontal or ver cal  direc on, the sum of the forces must equal zero in that direc on (∑F=0).

Figure 4: The le  figure is an example of a typical free body diagram (FBD) with a variety of forces labeled. The  normal force (Fnorm) and the force due to gravity (Fgrav) must be equal and opposite because the object is not  falling into the surfaces or accelera ng into the air. The applied force Fapp is larger than the force due to fric‐ on, so the net overall force Fnet points to the right‐‐shown on the reduced FBD on the right. The normal force

is not always directly opposite the force of gravity, as with an object res ng on an incline.

Figure 5: The 1 kg mass on the le  is supported by a  rope drawn around a pulley and anchored to a flat sur‐ face. The free body diagram on the right shows the case  of sta c equilibrium: the force of gravity is balanced out

by the tension in the string. In FBDs only the forces  ac ng direc onally on the object of interest ma er!

Figure 6: The two masses (weights labeled) are sus‐ pended by a single rope through a pulley wheel. The  right side is a free body diagram for each mass; note  that the tension in the string is the same on each side  (in other words, the string does not stretch). The net  force is upward on the 5 N mass and downward on the

8 N mass—which way will the assembly move?

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Lab 2: Types of Forces

The following experiments will demonstrate the effects of balanced and unbalanced forces.  You will  draw Free Body Diagrams to analyze the balance of forces and use simple kinema c equa ons to calcu‐ late velocity and accelera on.

Experiment 1: Fric on  When two materials are in contact with each other, the fric on between them acts to impede mo on.  Fric on is always a reac on force, meaning fric on never causes an object to move by itself. Instead,  fric on acts to oppose applied forces.  The equa on used to calculate the force of fric on is:

Ff = μFN

where Ff is the force of fric on, μ is the coefficient of fric on which represents the roughness of the  surface, and FN is the normal force. On a horizontal surface, FN = ‐mg, and the equa on becomes:

Ff = ‐μmg

In this lab you will demonstrate this rela onship between the normal force, FN, and the force of fricon, Ff.

Figure 7: Since the force that team 1 exerts on team 2 is equal and  opposite to the reac on force that team 2 exerts on team 1, how can  anyone ever win a tug of war? If no accelera on is occurring, the

game is in a state of equilibrium.

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Lab 2: Types of Forces

Procedure  1.  Use Steps 2 ‐ 5 to complete the experiment with the plas c, Styrofoam, and paper cups. Begin with

the plas c cup, then use the Styrofoam cup, and conclude with the paper cup. Record the force  readings on the spring scale for each trial in Table 1.

NOTE: For the paper cup, use smaller amounts of water as indicated in Table 1

2.  Tie the string around the outside edge of the cup, leaving some slack. Tie a loop at the end of the  string.

3.  Fill the cup with 300 mL of water (1 mL water = 1 g water). Place the materials on a smooth, flat  surface (be sure to use the same surface for each trial). Record a descrip on of the surface in Table  1.

4.  Hook the spring scale to the string. Pull on the scale gradually un l the cup starts to slide at a con‐ stant speed. Record the value of the force (Fapp) as the cup starts to move in Table 1.  Repeat four  more  mes.

5.  Using the same cup, empty the cup and fill it back up with 150 mL of water. Measure the force re‐ quired to slide the cup. Repeat the process four more  mes (as done in Step 4 with the 300 mL of  water).

6.  Average the data for the Force Applied (spring scale readings) columns and record your results in  Table 1.

Materials  Styrofoam cup  Plas c cup  Paper cup  String  Spring Scale

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Lab 2: Types of Forces

Please submit your table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.

Cup Material  Force Applied F1  m1 =  300 g water  Force Applied F2   m2 =  150 g water

F1 / FN1  F2 / FN2

Plas c

Avg:  Avg:  Avg:  Avg:

Styrofoam

Avg:  Avg:  Avg:  Avg:

Paper

F1  m1 =  150 g water

F2   m1 =  100 g water

F1 / FN1  F2

Avg:  Avg:  Avg:  Avg:

Surface Descrip on

Table 1: Applied force required to slide cup

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Lab 2: Types of Forces

Ques ons  1.   What happened to your applied force Fapp as you decreased the amount of water in the cup?        2.  Assume the mass to be exactly equal to the mass of water. Calculate the normal force (FN) for 300

g, 150 g, and 100 g. Use these values to compute the ra o of the Applied Force (Fapp) to the Nor‐ mal Force (Fn). Place these values in the rightmost column of Table 1.

What do these last two columns represent?  What is the ra o of the normal forces F1 / F300? Com‐ pare this to your values for F2/ F150, and F3/F100. What can you  conclude about the ra o between  the Force Normal and the Force Fric on?                    FN= mg          FN (300 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s2 = ___________          FN (150 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s2 = ___________          FN (100 g) = _________kg × 9.8 m/s2 = ___________

3.  Why doesn’t the normal force (FN) depend on the cup material?           4.  Right as the cup begins to slide the applied force is equal to the Force Fric on (Ff)‐ draw a free body

diagram sliding each type of cup (a total of three diagrams). Label the Force Gravity (=mg), the Nor‐ mal Force (FN), and the Fric on Force (Ff), but don’t use any specific numbers. What makes this a  state of equilibrium?

5.  Does it take more force to  slide an object across a surface if there is a high value of μ or a low one?  Explain your answer

35

Lab 2: Types of Forces

Experiment 2: Velocity and Air‐resistance  In a vacuum, all objects accelerate due to gravity at the same rate: 9.8 m/s2. In actuality, fric on from  air resistance prevents this from happening. A falling object will accelerate un l the force of air re‐ sistance matches the force on it due to gravity (mg). When these forces are equal, the object is said to  have reached terminal velocity, and will con nue to fall at a constant rate indefinitely.     In this experiment you will see how the air resistance of an object can work against the force of gravity  for an object of low weight and a large air resistance. If the object is light enough, air resistance can  cancel out the force of gravity, resul ng in a constant velocity.

Procedure 1  1.  Measure the height of a table and record the value in Table 2.   2.  Push one coffee filter off the edge of the table and start the stopwatch.  In Table 2, record how

long it takes for the filter to hit the ground in Table 2.  Repeat four  mes and average your results.  3.  Using the average  me calculated from Step 2, find the average speed of the falling filter using the

measured height of the table.   4.  Repeat Steps 2‐3 with two coffee filters stuck together.    Procedure 2    1.  Find a higher table, or get a friend to help you drop the filter from a higher spot. Measure the actu‐

al height.   2.  Push one coffee filter off the edge of the table and start the stopwatch.  In Table 2, record how

long it takes for the filter to hit the ground in Table 2.  Repeat four  mes and average your results  in Table 2.

3.  Using the average  me calculated from Step 2, find the average speed of the falling filter using the  measured height of the table.

4.  Repeat Steps 2‐3 with two coffee filters stuck together.

Materials  Tape measure  Stopwatch  Coffee filters (re‐shape to how they would sit in a coffee pot)

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Lab 2: Types of Forces

Please submit your table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.        Ques ons  1.  Draw a FBD for the falling coffee filter. What is the net force?

Table 2: Coffee Filter Data

Procedure 1

1 Coffee Filter  2 Coffee Filters

Height of table (m)

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 1

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 2

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 3

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 4

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 5

Calculated average speed (m/s)

Procedure 2

Measured height (m)

Calculated average speed (m/s)

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 5

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 1

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 4

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 2

Total Time (s) ‐ Trial 3

37

Lab 2: Types of Forces

2.   What are we assuming by using the average velocity from Procedure 1 to es mate the height of  the fall in Procedure 2?

3.  Is the object actually traveling at the average speed over the dura on of its fall? Where does the   accelera on occur?

4.  Draw the FBD for the 2‐filter combina on, assuming constant velocity. What is the net force?

 

5.  How do your measured and calculated values for the height in Procedure 2 compare? If they are  significantly different, explain what you think caused the difference.

6.  Why do two coffee filters reach a higher velocity in free fall than one coffee filter?

7.  How would the FBD differ for a round rubber ball dropped from the same height?

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

41

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

Forces can produce or prevent mo on. The laws used today to describe all aspects of mo on date back  to the 1700s, when Sir Isaac Newton proposed a set of rules to describe how all objects move.  New‐ ton’s First Law of Mo on states that an object will remain at rest, or in uniform mo on, unless acted  on by an unbalanced force. In other words, objects have the tendency to resist changes in mo on.  The  concept that force can change the velocity of a mass is very important. Nothing would change without  forces.                                               Newton’s First Law is also called the Law of Iner a.  Iner a is an object’s tendency to resist changes in  state of mo on (speed or direc on). Ma er has this property whether it is at rest or in mo on. The  First Law states that an object will con nue at a constant velocity in one direc on unless acted on by a  net force. When a net force on an object is applied, the object will accelerate in the direc on of that

Figure 1: Newton’s First Law of Mo on in ac on ‐ billiard balls remain at rest  un l an external force (the cue ball) causes them to move.

Concepts to explore:   Newton’s First Law   Weight vs. Mass   Iner a   Newton’s Second Law   Newton’s Third Law

42

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

force. The movement of planets around the Sun is an example of in‐ er a.  Planets have a lot of mass, and therefore a great amount of  iner a—it takes a huge force to accelerate a planet in a new direc‐ on.  The pull of gravity from the Sun keeps the planets in orbit—if

the Sun were to suddenly disappear, the planets would con nue at a  constant speed in a straight line, shoo ng off into space!  Newton also observed a special rela onship between mass and iner‐ a. Mass is o en confused with weight, but the difference is crucial in

physics. While mass is the measure of how much ma er is in an ob‐ ject (how much stuff is there), weight is a measure of the force expe‐ rienced by an object due to gravity. Thus, weight is rela ve to your  loca on – your weight would differ at the Earth’s core, at the summit  of Mount Everest, and especially in outer space, when compared to  the surface.  On the other hand, mass remains constant in all these  loca ons.  Mathema cally, weight is the mass of an object mul plied  by its accelera on due to gravity:

w = mg

where w is weight, m is mass and g is gravity.    Sir Isaac Newton noted that the greater an object’s mass, the more it  resisted changes in mo on.  Therefore, he concluded that mass and  iner a are directly propor onal (↑mass = ↑iner a).  This predic on  produced Newton’s Second Law of Mo on, an expression for how an  object will accelerate based on its mass and the net force applied to  the object.  This law can be summarized by the equa on:

ΣF = ma    where ΣF is the sum of all forces ac ng on the object, m is its mass and a is its accelera on. The stand‐ ard measurement for mass is the kilogram (kg), and for accelera on is the meter/sec/sec, or m/s2. The  standard measurement for force is the Newton, where 1 N = 1 kg·m/s2. Comparing this equa on to the  first one helps reinforce the difference between mass and force (such as weight).    Newton’s Third Law of Mo on states that for every ac on there is an equal, but opposite reac on.  When you hold up a heavy object, the force of gravity is pulling the object down against your hands. In  order to keep the object from falling to the floor, your hands and arms supply an equal and opposite  force upward against the ball. Thus, single forces do not exist, only pairs of forces (the ac on force and  the reac on force). You might not think about it, but you do not directly feel the force of gravity when  you stand on the ground; what you’re really feeling is the opposing force exerted by the ground that  keeps you from falling toward the center of the earth! Even when you walk, you push against the  ground, and it pushes right back!    Newton’s three laws of mo on govern the rela onship of forces and accelera on. There are many ap‐ plica ons of Newton’s Laws in your everyday life.  To get that last bit of ketchup from the bo le, you

Figure 2: When this player leaps to the bas‐ ket you are seeing the Third Law in ac on:  the player’s downward push receives an  equal and opposite force upward from the  ground. Without this reac on force, he

would have no way to accelerate upward to  the rim.

43

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

shake the bo le upside‐down, and quickly stop it (with the lid). Consider riding in a car. Have you ever  experienced iner a while rapidly accelera ng or decelera ng? Thousands of lives are saved every year  by seatbelts, which are safety restraints that protect against the iner a that propels a person forward  when a car comes to a quick stop.       Experiment 1: Newton’s First Law

Procedure    1.  Fill the container with about 4 inches of water.  2.  Find an open space outside to walk around in with the container of water in your hands.  3.  Perform the following ac vi es:

a.  Start with the water at rest (i.e., on top of a table).  Grab the container and quickly acceler‐ ate.

b.  Walk with constant speed in a straight line for 15 feet.  c.  A er walking a straight line at constant speed, make an abrupt right‐hand turn. Repeat with

a le ‐hand turn.  d.  A er walking a straight line at constant speed, stop abruptly.

4.  Record your observa ons for each type of mo on from Step 3 in the space below.  Comment on  where  the water tended to move. If it spilled, note if it spilled right, le , away from you, or toward  you.

a.    b.    c.    d.

Materials  Deep bowl or pitcher*  Water*  * You must provide

44

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

Ques ons  Please submit your answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.    1.  Explain how your observa ons of the water demonstrate Newton’s law of iner a.

2.  Draw a free body diagram of your containers of water from the situa on in Step 3, Part d. Draw  arrows for the force of gravity, the normal force (your hand pushing up on the container), and the  stopping force (your  hand decelera ng the container as you stop.) What is the direc on of the  water’s accelera on?

*Note, free body diagrams are discussed in depth in Lab 2: Types  of Forces.  See Figure 3 for a sample diagram. Remember, the ob‐ ject is usually indicated as a box, and each force that acts upon  the box is indicated with an arrow. The size of the arrow indicates  the magnitude of the force, and the direc on of the arrow indi‐ cates the direc on which the force is ac ng. Each arrow should be  labeled to iden fy the type of force. Note, not all objects have  four forces ac ng upon them.

3.  Can you think of any instances when your are driving or riding a car that are similar to this experi‐ ment? Describe two instances where you feel forces in a car in terms of iner a.

Experiment 2: Unbalanced Forces – Newton’s Second Law  This experiment will demonstrate the mechanical laws of mo on using a simple assembly similar to  that used by Rev. George Atwood in 1784 to verify Newton’s Second Law, named the Atwood machine.

Materials  Pulley  String  Tape measure  Stop watch  2 Paperclips  15 Washers  Masking tape

Ffric on  Fapp

Fnormal

Fgravity

Figure 3

45

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

Procedure 1  1.  Support the pulley so that objects hanging from it can descend

to the floor. (i.e., Tape a pencil to the top of a table, door, etc.)  Remember that higher support will produce longer  me inter‐ vals which are easier to measure. See

2.  Thread  a  piece  of  string  through  the  pulley  so  that  you  can  a ach washers to both ends of the string. The string should be  long enough for one set of washers to touch the ground with  the other  set near  the pulley.  (You may  a ach  the washers  using a paperclip or by tying them on.)

3.  Count out 15 washers  4.  A ach seven washers to each end of the string.   5.  Observe how the washers on one side behave when you pull

on the washers on the other side. Answer ques on 1 based on  your observa ons.

6.  Add the remaining washer to one end of the string so one side  of  the  string  has  seven washers  (M1),  and  the  other  has  8  washers a ached to it (M2).

7.  Place M1  on  the  floor. Measure  the  height  of M2 when  sus‐ pended while M1 is on the floor. Measure the distance M2 falls  when you  release  the  light  set when  it  is  in  contact with  the  floor, and record it in Table 1.

8.  Time how long it takes for M2 to reach the floor.   9.  Repeat Steps 7  ‐ 8  four more  mes  (for a  total of five  mes),

recording the values in Table 1. Calculate the average  me.  10. Calculate  the  accelera on  (assuming  it  is  constant)  from  the

average  me and the distance the washers moved. Refer to the  “Hint” below Table 1 for help.

Procedure 2  1.  Transfer one washer,  so  that  there are  six on one end of  the

string (M1) and nine on the other (M2).  2.  Place  the M1 on  the floor. Measure  the height  that M2  is sus‐

pended at while M1  is on  the floor. Measure  the distance M2  will fall if you release the light set when it is in contact with the  floor.

3.  Time how  long  it  takes  for  the heavy  set of washers  to  reach  the floor.

4.  Repeat Steps 2  ‐ 3  four more  mes  (for a  total of five  mes),  recording the values  in a table and then calculate the average  me.

5.  Calculate  the  accelera on  (assuming  it  is  constant)  from  the  average  me and the distance the washers moved.

Figure 5: Atwood machine. The tension  force is directed up for both M1 and M2.   M1 accelerates upward, and M2 acceler‐ ates downward. Do you know what  causes the downward force?

M2

M1  Tension force

Tension force

Figure 4: Sample experimental set‐up.  This set‐up hangs the pulley from a pencil  that has been taped to a table. Although,  any level surface (such as a counter‐top or  door) will suffice. Metal washers will also  be  ed to both ends of the string for this  experiment. Do not  e the string in a knot  you cannot un e!

46

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

Please submit the table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.    Table 1: Mo on Data for Experiment 2

Trial  M1    M2  Δd of M2  Time (s)  Accelera on

Procedure 1

1

2

3

4

5

Average

Procedure 2

1

2

3

4

5

Average

Hint: You need to rearrange the formula d = 1/2 at2 to calculate the accelera on. In this equa on,  d = distance, a = accelera on, and t =  me.     Example:  Suppose you set up an Atwood Machine. The M2 weight accelerates downward a distance of 1.30 me‐ ters in 1.50 seconds. What was the accelera on rate?    Given:  d = 1.30 meters  t = 1.50 seconds     The goal is to rearrange the formula to end with “a” by itself on one side of the equa on. To do this…    1.  Set up your equa on, and square the value for t;      1.30 meters = 1/2 · (a · (1.50 seconds)2)  2.  Remove the “1/2” by mul plying each side of the equa on by 2;      (2) · 1.30 meters = 1/2 · (a · 2.25 seconds) · (2)  3.  Remove the 2.25 seconds by dividing each side of the equa on by 2.25 seconds;     2.60 meters/2.25 seconds =  a     Answer: The accelera on for M2 = 1.15 meters per second.

47

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

Ques ons  1.  When you give one set of washers a downward push, does it move as easily as the other set? Does

it stop before it reaches the floor. How do you explain this behavior?

2.  Draw a FBD for M1 and M2 in each procedure (Procedure 1 and Procedure 2). Draw force arrows for

the force due to gravity ac ng on both masses (Fg1 and Fg2) and the force of tension (FT). Also draw

arrows indica on the direc on of accelera on, a.

Experiment 3: Newton’s Third Law

Procedure  1.  Tie one end of the fishing line to a chair. Space the second chair about 10 feet away.     2.  String the other end of the fishing line through the straw.   3.  Tie the loose end of the fishing line to the second chair.   4.  Inflate a balloon. Hold it closed with your fingers, and tape it to the straw.   5.  Slide the straw/balloon back so that the mouth of the balloon is facing the nearest chair.    6.  Let go of the balloon and observe what happens.

Materials  Fishing line  Balloon  Plas c straw  Masking tape  2 Chairs*  *You must provide

48

Lab 3: Newton’s Laws

Ques ons   Please submit your answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.    1.  Explain what caused the balloon to move in terms of Newton’s Third Law.

2.  What is the force pair in this experiment? Draw a Free Body Diagram (FBD) to represent the  (unbalanced) forces on the balloon/straw combina on.

3.  Add some mass to the straw by taping some metal washers to the bo om and repeat the experi‐ ment. How does this change the mo on of the assembly? How does this change the FBD?

4.  If the recoil of the rifle has the same magnitude force on the shooter as rifle has on the bullet, why  does the shooter not fly backwards with a high velocity?

Lab 4: Acids & Bases

51

Lab 4: Acids & Bases

Introduc on

Have you ever had a drink of orange juice a er brushing your teeth?  What do you taste when you brush your teeth and drink orange juice a erwards? Yuck! It  leaves a really bad taste  in your mouth. But why? Orange  juice and toothpaste by them‐ selves  taste good. The  terrible  taste  is  the  result of an acid/base  reac on  that occurs  in  your mouth.  Orange juice is a weak acid and the toothpaste is a weak base. When they are  placed  together  they neutralize each other and produce a product  that  is unpleasant  to  taste. In this lab we will discover how to dis nguish between acids and bases.

Two very  important  classes of  compounds are acids and bases. But what exactly makes  them different? Acids and bases have physical and chemical differences that you can ob‐ serve and  test. According  to  the Arrhenius defini on, acids  ionize  in water  to produce a  hydronium ion (H3O+), and bases dissociate in water to produce hydroxide ion (OH‐).

Physical differences  between  acids  and bases  can  be detected  by  the  senses,  including  taste and touch.   Acids have a sour or tart taste and can produce a s nging sensa on to  broken  skin. For example,  if you have ever  tasted a  lemon,  it can o en  result  in a  sour  face. Bases have a bi er taste and a slippery  feel. Soap and many cleaning products are  bases. Have you accidentally tasted soap or had it slip out of your hands?

Reac ons with acids and bases vary depending on the par cular reactants, and acids and bases each react differently with  other substances. For example, bases do not react with most metals, but acids will react readily with certain metals to pro‐ duce hydrogen gas and an ionic compound—which is referred to as a salt.  An example of this type of reac on occurs when  magnesium metal reacts with hydrochloric acid.  In this reac on, magnesium chloride (a salt) and hydrogen gas are formed.

Mg (s) + 2 HCl (aq) → MgCl2 (aq) + H2(g)

metal      +      acid              →         a salt      +      hydrogen gas

Acids may also react with a carbonate or bicarbonate to form carbon dioxide gas and water.  The general reac on equa on  for a reac on between an acid and a carbonate can be represented in this manner:

CO32-(aq) + 2 H3O+(aq) → CO2 (g) + 3 H2O (l)

carbonate      +       acid        → carbon dioxide     +    water

The general equa on for a reac on between an acid and a bicarbonate is similar and can be represented in this manner:

Figure 1: Orange juice has a pH  of around 3.5. Dairy milk, by  comparison, is much less acid‐ ic, with a pH of around 6.5.

Concepts to explore:   Understand the proper es and reac ons of acids and bases   Relate these proper es to common household products

52

Lab 4: Acids & Bases

HCO3- (aq) + H3O+ (aq) → CO2 (g) + 2 H2O (l)

Acids and bases can also react with each other.    In this case, the two opposites  cancel each other out  so  that  the product  formed has neither acidic nor basic  (also called alkaline) proper es.   This  type of  reac on  is called a neutraliza on  reac on.   The general equa on  for  the  reac on between an acid and a base  is  represented in this manner:

H3O+ + OH – → 2 H2O

An example of a neutraliza on  reac on  is when an aqueous  solu on of HCl, a  strong acid, is mixed with an aqueous solu on of NaOH, a strong base.  HCl, when  dissolved in water, forms H3O+ and Cl‐.   NaOH in water forms Na+ and OH‐.  When  the two solu ons are mixed together the products are water and common table  salt  (NaCl). Neither water nor  table  salt has acid or base proper es.   Generally  this reac on is wri en without the water solvent shown as a reactant:

HCl  +  NaOH      →    H2O  + NaCl

There is another group of acids called organic acids.  Ace c acid found in vinegar and citric acid found in citrus fruit are  examples of organic acids.  These acids are all much weaker than HCl.  Organic acids have at least one –CO2H group in  their molecular formula.  When a base is added, the –H of the –CO2H group is replaced just like the –H in HCl.  In this lab  you will use citric acid as the acid and sodium bicarbonate as the base.  Citric acid has three –CO2H groups and only each  of the H’s on these groups react with a sodium bicarbonate.  The other H’s in the formula do not react.  This reac on can  be represented in this manner:

HOC(CO2H)(CH2CO2H)2   +   3 NaHCO3       →      HOC(CO2‐Na+)(CH2CO2‐Na+ )2   +    3 CO2    +   3 H2O

Acids and bases are measured on a scale called pH.  The pH of a substance is defined as the nega ve log of its  hydronium  ion concentra on. An aqueous (water) solu on that has a  lot of hydronium  ions but very few hy‐ droxide  ions  is considered to be very acidic, while a solu on that contains many hydroxide  ions but very few  hydronium ions is considered to be very basic.

pH   =  ‐ log [H3O+]

pH values range from less than 1 to 14, and are measured on a logarithmic scale (equa on above). This means  that a substance with a pH of 2 is 10‐ mes (101) more acidic than a substance with a pH of 3. Similarly, a pH of  7  is 100‐ mes (102)more basic than a pH of 5. This scale  lets us quickly tell  if something  is very acidic, a  li le

bicarbonate      +       acid             →        carbon dioxide       +    water

Table 1: Approximate pH of various  common foods.

Food  pH Range

Lime  1.8 ‐ 2.0

So  Drinks  2.0 ‐ 4.0

Apple  3.3 ‐ 3.9

Tomato  4.3 ‐ 4.9

Cheese  4.8 ‐ 6.4

Potato  5.6 ‐ 6.0

Drinking Water  6.5 ‐ 8.0

Tea  7.2

Eggs  7.6 ‐ 8.0

Acid       +      Base          →         Water

53

Lab 4: Acids & Bases

acidic, neutral (neither acidic nor basic), a  li le basic, or very basic.   A pH of 1  is highly acidic, a pH of 14  is  highly basic, and a pH of 7 is neutral.

pH  indicators, which change color under a certain pH level, can be used to determine whether a solu on is  acidic or basic.  Litmus paper is made by coa ng a piece of paper with litmus, which changes color at around  a pH of 7. Either red or blue litmus paper can be purchased depending on the experimental needs. Blue lit‐ mus paper remains blue when dipped in a base, but turns red when dipped in an acid, while red litmus paper  stays red when dipped in an acid, but turns blue when in contact with a base.

A more precise way to determine acidity or basicity is with pH paper.  When a substance is placed on pH pa‐ per a color appears, and this color can be matched to a color chart that shows a wide range of pH values. In  this way, pH paper allows us to determine to what degree a substance is acidic or basic and can provide an  approximate pH value.

Pre‐lab Ques ons

1.  What is a neutraliza on reac on?

2.  Hydrochloric acid (HCl) is a strong acid.  About what pH would you expect it to be?

3.  Sodium  hydroxide  (NaOH)  is  a  strong  base.    About  what  pH  would  you  expect  it  to  be?

54

Lab 4: Acids & Bases

Experiment: Acidity of Common Household Products

In this experiment, we will observe the neutraliza on of acids and bases using grape juice as an indicator. We  will also test common household products for their acidity or alkalinity.

Procedure

Part 1:  Acid‐Base Neutraliza on

1.  Label three test tubes 1, 2, and Standard.

2.  Prepare 50 mL of a 10% grape  juice solu on by first pouring 5 mL of  grape Juice into a 100 mL graduated cylinder.  Add dis lled water un l  the total volume of  liquid  is 50 mL.   Mix well by s rring the solu on  with a s rring rod.

3.  Pour 10 mL of the dilute grape juice solu on into each test tube.

4.  Note the color of the juice in the test tube labeled Standard in Table 2.

5.  Using a pipe e, add 15 drops of saturated citric acid solu on into test  tube 1.   Record your observa ons concerning the color change  in Ta‐ ble 2 of the Data sec on. Use the juice in the test tube labeled Standard for comparison.

6.  Using a pipe e, add 15 drops of saturated sodium bicarbonate solu on into test tube 2. Record  your observa ons concerning  the color change  in Table 2 of  the Data sec on. Use the  juice  in  the test tube labeled Standard for comparison.

7.  Use pH paper to determine the pH of the solu on in each of the 3 test tubes.  Record the pH val‐ ues in Table 2.

8.  Using a pipe e, add drops of saturated sodium bicarbonate solu on  to  test  tube 1 un l  it  re‐ turns to its original color.  Record your observa ons in Table 3.

Materials  Safety Equipment: Safety goggles,  gloves  Vinegar  Household ammonia  **Grape Juice  3 test tubes  pH strips  Saturated citric acid solu on  (60%  Test tube rack  Neutral litmus paper

Saturated sodium bicarbonate solu‐ on (15%)

(2) 50 mL beakers  Tomato juice  Sodium bicarbonate   12‐well plate  Powdered milk  Lemon juice  10 Droppers (pipe es)  Baking soda  Dishwashing liquid

S rring rod  100 mL Graduated cylinder  *Dis lled water      *You must provide     **Used in the next lab— refrigerate a er opening

HINT: If the grape juice  is not dilute enough or

the base is not as  strong as needed, you  may con nue adding

drops of base.

55

Lab 4: Acids & Bases

9.  Using a pipe e, add drops of saturated citric acid solu on to test tube 2 un l it returns to its original col‐ or.  Record your observa ons in Table 3.

10.  Use pH paper to test the pH of the three solu ons. Record the pH values in Table 3.

Part 2:  Tes ng acidity and basicity of common household products

1.  Use the pipe es to place  into different wells of your 12‐well plate a couple of drops of each of the fol‐ lowing  items:  tomato  juice, household ammonia, milk  (mix powdered milk with 50mL water un l dis‐ solved), vinegar, lemon juice, and diluted dishwashing liquid (mix 1mL dishwashing liquid with 5mL wa‐ ter).  Be sure to label or write down where each item is located in the 12‐well plate. CAUTION: Do not  contaminate the items being tested.  Be sure to use only a clean pipe e for each item.

2.  Guess the pH of each of the items before you find the experimental value and record your guess in Table  4.

3.  Test each item with litmus paper and pH paper.  Record your results in Table 4.

4.  To clean up rinse all chemicals into a waste beaker.  Neutralize the waste to a pH between 4 and 8 using  either baking soda or vinegar.  Wash the waste solu on down the drain.

Data

Please submit your table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.

Table 2: Acid‐Base Neutraliza on for Part 1, Steps 5 & 6  Table 3: Acid‐Base Neutraliza on for Part 1, Steps 8 & 9

Test tube 1  Test tube 2  Standard

Step 1  Add acid  Add base  Neutral

Color

pH value

Test tube 1  Test tube 2  Standard

Step 1  Add base  Add acid  Neutral

Color

pH value

Table 4: Acidity and basicity tes ng for household products data

Product  Hypothesized pH  Color of Litmus Paper  Color of pH Paper  Actual pH

Acids & Bases

Ques ons

1.  Why did the grape juice change color when an acid or base was added?

2.  You added a base, sodium bicarbonate, to test tube 1 that contained citric acid and an acid to test  tube 2 that contained base.  Why did the grape juice return to its original color?

3.  Name two acids and two bases you o en use.

Lab 5: Chemical Processes

59

Lab 5: Chemical Processes

Introduc on

Have you ever needed to place a cold pack on  a sprained muscle?  It’s  the final  seconds of  the community  league champion‐ ship  basketball  game,  and  your  team  is  behind  by  one  point.  One of your team’s players takes a shot and scores.   The game  is over, and your  team won!   But  something  is  wrong: the player is si ng on the floor, and appears to be  in a lot of pain.  The coach quickly brings a cold pack to the  player, squeezes it, and places it on the swelling ankle.  The  bag immediately becomes cold—but how?

Though we o en use them interchangeably, heat and tem‐ perature have different defini ons—though they are close‐ ly  related  in  the  study  of  thermodynamics.  Heat  is  the  transfer  of  energy  from  one  object  to  another  due  to  a  difference in temperature. Temperature, on the other hand, describes how much energy the atoms and molecules in a sub‐ stance have. This energy, o en called internal energy, describes how quickly the atoms or molecules in a substance move  or vibrate around.  When an object gains heat its molecules vibrate with more energy, which we can sense or measure as  an  increase  in temperature. When you touch a hot object,  it feels hot because a heat moves from the hot object (higher  energy) to your skin (lower energy). Similarly, an object feels cold when heat  is  lost by your hand and gained by the cold  object. Heat always transfers in the direction of high temperature to low temperature—high energy to low energy.

Both physical processes and chemical reac ons can release or absorb energy in the form of heat.  When a reac on or phys‐ ical change gives off energy it is called an exothermic process. To remember exothermic, think of ‘exi ng’ as in leaving or  going out.   An endothermic process does  just  the opposite—it  takes  in energy  from  its  surroundings.   The generalized  chemical equa ons for exothermic and endothermic reactions are: The direction energy moves determines whether the process is considered endothermic or exothermic, and tells you how  the temperature of a system changes.  In an endothermic reac on or physical change,  energy is absorbed and the overall  temperature of  the system decreases.   Some examples of endothermic processes  include  the mel ng of water  in a so   drink or the evapora on of a liquid.  Similarly, an endothermic reac on takes in energy for chemical changes to occur. One  example is what occurs in an instant cold pack like the ones used to decrease the swelling caused from a sports injury.  The‐

exothermic:

endothermic:

reactants → products + energy

reactants + energy → products

Figure 1: The combus on of fuel, such as wood or coal, is a com‐ mon example of an exothermic reac on. Under the right condi‐ ons (usually the applica on of enough heat), a chemical reac‐ on occurs between wood and the oxygen in air. Fire is the re‐

Concepts to explore:   Understand the difference between endothermic and exothermic

processes   Understand the concept of enthalpy

60

Lab 5: Chemical Processes

se types of cold packs u lize the chemical process of ammonium nitrate (NH4NO3 ) dissolving in water. The ammonium  nitrate needs  to absorb heat  from  the surrounding water  to dissolve, so  the overall  temperature of  the mixture de‐ creases as the reac on occurs.

In contrast, energy is released in an exothermic process.  An example of an exothermic reac on is what occurs in com‐ mon hand warmers.  The increase in temperature is the result of the chemical reac on of rus ng iron:

4 Fe(s) + 3 O2(g)  2 Fe2O3(s) + energy

Iron usually rusts fairly slowly so that any heat transfer  is not easily no ced.    In the case of hand warmers, common  table salt is added to iron filings as a catalyst to speed up the rate of the reac on.  Hand warmers also have a permea‐ ble plas c bag that regulates the flow of air into the bag, which allows just the right amount of oxygen  in so that the  desired temperature is maintained for a long period of  me.  Other ingredients that are found in hand warmers include  a cellulose filler, carbon to disperse the heat, and vermiculite to insulate and retain the heat.

Enthalpy is a quan ty of energy contained in a chemical process.  In the cases we will be dealing with, the energy re‐ leased or absorbed  in a  reac on  is  in  the  form of heat. Enthalpy by  itself does not have an absolute quan ty, but  changes in enthalpy can be observed and recorded. For example, if you s ck your finger into a glass of cold tap water,  it probably feels pre y cold. However, a er being outside on a freezing winter day for a long period of  me, the same  glass of water might actually feel warm to touch. It would be difficult to measure the absolute quan ty of energy in the  water in either case, but it is rela vely easy to no ce the movement of energy from one object to another. In exother‐ mic reac ons, heat energy is released and the change in enthalpy is nega ve, while in endothermic reac ons, energy is  absorbed and the change in enthalpy is posi ve.

Pre‐lab Ques ons

1.  Define enthalpy:

2.  What is the rela onship between the enthalpy of a reac on and  its classifica on as endothermic or exo‐ thermic?

3.  With  instant hot compresses, calcium chloride dissolves  in water and the temperature of the mixture  in‐ creases. Is this an endothermic or exothermic process?

Note: the energy term on the right side shows that the reac on is exothermic, but is not required.

61

Lab 5: Chemical Processes

Experiment: Cold Packs vs. Hand Warmers

In this lab you will observe the temperature changes for cold packs and hand warmers.  Since temperature is defined as  the average kine c energy of the molecules, changes  in temperature  indicate changes  in energy.   You will use simply a  Styrofoam cup as a calorimeter to capture the energy.  The customary lid will not be placed on the cup since ample oxy‐ gen from the air is needed for the hand warmer ingredients to react within a reasonable amount of  me.

Procedure

Part 1: Cold Pack

1.  Measure 10 mL of dis lled water into a 10 mL graduated cylinder.

2.  Place about 1/4 of the ammonium nitrate crystals found  in the solid  inner contents of a cold pack  into a  Styrofoam cup.  The Styrofoam cup is used as a simple calorimeter.

3.  Place a thermometer and a s rring rod  into the calorimeter  (Styrofoam cup).   CAUTION: Hold or secure  the calorimeter AND the thermometer to prevent breakage.

4.  Pour the 10 mL of water into the calorimeter containing the ammonium nitrate, (NH4NO3) taken from the  cold pack.

5.  Immediately record the temperature and the  me.

6.  Quickly begin s rring the contents in the calorimeter.

7.  Con nue s rring and record the temperature at thirty second intervals in Table 1.  You will need to s r the  reac on the en re  me you are recording data.

8.  Collect data for at least five minutes and un l a er the temperature reaches its minimum and then begins  to rise.  This should take approximately 5 to 7 minutes.

9.  Record the overall minimum temperature in the appropriate place on the data table.

Materials  Safety Equipment: Safety goggles, gloves  En re contents of a hand warmer  S r rod  1/4 contents of a cold pack  Spatula  Calorimeters (2 Styrofoam cups)

Stopwatch  Thermometer (digital)  *Dis lled water    10mL Graduated cylinder        *You must provide       62

Lab 5: Chemical Processes

Part 2:  Hand Warmer

1.  Wash and dry the thermometer.  HINT: Remember to rinse it with dis lled water before drying.

2.  Carefully place and hold the thermometer in another Styrofoam cup.

3.  Cut open the  inner package of a hand warmer and quickly transfer all of  its contents  into the calorimeter.   Immediately record the ini al temperature of the contents and being  ming the reac on.  HINT: Data collec‐ on should start quickly a er the package  is opened because the reac on will be ac vated as soon as it  is

exposed to air.

4.  Quickly insert the s rring rod into the cup and begin s rring the contents in the calorimeter.

5.  Con nue s rring and record the temperature at thirty second intervals in Table 2. You will need to s r the  reac on the en re  me you are recording data.

6.  Let the reac on con nue for at least five minutes and un l the temperature has reached its maximum and  then fallen a few degrees.  This should take approximately 5 to 7 minutes.

7.  Record the overall maximum temperature in the appropriate place in the data table.

Data

Please submit your table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.

Table 1:  Cold pack data

Time  (sec)  Temp.  (0C)  Time (sec)  Temp. in (0C)

Ini al  240

30  270

60  * 300

90  330

120  360

150  390

180  420

210  450

Minimum Temperature (0C) : __________

 

 

63

Lab 5: Chemical Processes

 

Table 2: Hand warmer data

Time  (sec)  Temp.  (0C)  Time (sec)  Temp. in (0C)

Ini al  240

30  270

60  * 300

90  330

120  360

150  390

180  420

210  450

Maximum Temperature (°C) : __________

64

Lab 5: Chemical Processes

Graph your data from the tables on the Word document provided to you. You may create  the graph on any program, but make sure it can be integrated into the Word document.

Ques ons  1.  Calculate the overall temperature change (referred to as ΔT) for the cold and hot pack substance. HINT:

This is the difference in the maximum temperature and minimum temperature of each.

Cold pack ΔT:

Hand warmer ΔT:

2.  Which pack works by an exothermic process?  Use experimental data to support your answer.

3.  Which pack works by an endothermic process?  Use experimental data to support your answer.

4.  Which pack had the greatest change in enthalpy?  How do you know?

Lab 6: Light

67

Lab 6: Light

For centuries, scien sts have used op cal equipment such as lenses and mirrors to study the nature of  light. Telescopes and microscopes take advantage of the proper es of light to create images from stars  across the galaxy and to magnify objects hardly visible to the naked eye.     In the late 19th century, James Maxwell proposed a series of equa ons that unify what we know about  electricity and magne sm—it turns out that what we see as light is really electromagne c waves in  wavelengths ranging from radio waves to gamma rays. Whenever subatomic par cles interact, they  release or absorb energy in the form of electromagne c radia on, which travels through space in the  form of electromagne c waves! Many  mes, this electromagne c radia on can be detected by the  human eye as visible light, but other kinds of light such as infrared radia on require special equipment  to view.

Figure 1: This camera uses a series of op cal lenses so that the user can adjust for the  intended focal point (f‐stop) and magnifica on of the

desired image.

Concepts to explore:   Electromagne c waves   Speed of light   Reflec on and refrac on   Mirrors and lenses

68

Lab 6: Light

Electromagne c waves travel fast—so fast that it took scien sts many  years to confirm that light does not travel at an infinite speed. Over  the past half century there have been a number of experiments con‐ ducted to measure the precise speed of light. Modern experiments  confirm the speed of light to be about 2.998×108 m/s, usually rounded  off as:

c  =  3.00×108  m/s

Just as sound travels at different speeds through different materials,  the speed of light also changes depending on the medium it travels in.  You can calculate how fast light travels in a material by using the equa‐ on

where n is equal to the index of refrac on for the material. The value of n for all sorts of materials has  been found experimentally; some of these materials are listed in Table 1. This number tells us a lot  about how light will behave within a material or as it crosses from one medium to another. Because  electromagne c waves are so small and fluctuate so quickly, we can divide the light up into idealized  lines called rays. You can imagine a ray as a straight beam of light, but in reality light is emi ed from a  source in all direc ons.     Reflec on occurs when a beam of light bounces off of a material. If the surface is smooth, the reflected  beam leaves the surface at the same angle at which it approached. Thus we say that the angle of inci‐ dence equals the angle of reflec on, or θi=θr. You can see your reflec on in a mirror because rays of  light from different points on your body reflect in this uniform manner.     When a beam of light transmits from one medium to another, refrac on occurs. The direc on of light  bends one direc on or another depending on the refrac ve index of each material. In general, when  light travels from a material with smaller n to larger n, the ray will bend toward the normal (θ1 > θ2); if  it goes from larger n to smaller n, it bends away from the normal. See Figure 2  for a diagram.

Table 1: Sample indices of refrac‐ on for several materials.

Material  n

Vacuum  1 (exact)

Air  1.00

Water  1.33

Glass (Crown)  1.52

Diamond  2.15

Figure 2: Reflec on (le ) and Refrac on (right). No ce the direc on the ray of light bends as it moves from a  material with larger index of refrac on to a smaller one, and vice versa.  V =   c           n

69

Lab 6: Light

Mirrors and lenses are devices that u lize the phenomena of reflec on and refrac on to create a num‐ ber of useful results for scien sts and engineers. A mirror is usually a polished metal surface that re‐ flects almost all of the light that lands on it. While it is easy to predict how a ray will bounce off of a  plane mirror, such as the one in your bathroom, curved mirrors can produce some very interes ng re‐ sults. The following diagrams show how incident rays will reflect off of different spherical mirrors.

Figure 3: Rays incident on a convex (le ) and concave (right) mirror reflect outward or inward as shown above.  Images form where the rays converge (real image) or where they appear to emanate from (virtual image).

● F

Figure 4: Rays incident on a convex (le ) and concave (right) lens reflect outward or inward as shown above.  Convex lenses (le ) focus parallel incident rays through a single point, called the focus point. For this reason,  they are some mes referred to as convergent lenses. Concave lenses (right) cause parallel incident rays to  bend away from each other. In fact, they diverge away from each other as if they all began at the same focal

point (rather than converging at the same focal point, as with concave lenses )

● ●

70

Lab 6: Light

Parallel rays incident on a concave mirror all reflect toward the mirror’s focal point, which lies in front  of the mirror. For a convex mirror, rays reflect outward in such a way that, if traced backward, they  converge at a focal point behind the mirror (Figure 3). In each case, the focal point is halfway between  the mirror surface and the center—the center of the imaginary sphere that the mirror surface shares:                        In the case of lenses, parallel rays refract through the lens material. For converging lenses, the rays  converge at a focal point behind the lens. For diverging lenses, rays are refracted outward so that when  traced backward they will intersect at a focal point in front of the lens.     If the object is very far away from a concave mirror (we can say “at infinity”), rays hi ng the mirror  surface will be pre y much parallel, and an image will form at the focal point in front of the mirror. In  the case of a converging lens, rays refract through the lens and converge at the focal distance on the  other side. A real image occurs when a mirror or lens focuses rays of light from all points on the object  at a specific distance. If you know where all the light rays intersect, you could put a screen at that point  and view the real image that forms there. The projec on screen at a movie theater, for instance, cre‐ ates a real image at the precise distance of the movie screen. Without a screen, you can view a real  image by placing your eyes at just the right distance beyond where the image forms so that your eyes  are focused at the image point—and an image will appear in the air in front of you!    A virtual image occurs when rays coming off of a mirror or through a lens appear to originate from a  specific spot, when really no actual object exists at that point. Virtual images are usually made with  convex mirrors and diverging lenses. Your reflec on in a regular plane mirror is a virtual image—there  is nothing really behind the mirror giving off light. With a concave mirror, the forma on of a virtual im‐ age depends on how close the object is to the mirror. An object closer than the mirror’s focal point is  virtual and magnified, while an object placed outside the focal point creates a real image in front of the  mirror that can only be seen clearly at the right distance (usually with a screen).    When images form from spherical mirrors and lenses, o en  mes the image appears to be larger or  smaller than the original object. The magnifica on of a mirror or lens tells us how large or small the  image is compared to the object. It turns out that the magnifica on (M) is also directly related to the  image and object distances:        Here the magnifica on is expressed as ra os of the image and object heights and distances. By conven‐ on, an inverted image has a nega ve image height, while an upright image is given a posi ve height.

Image distances are posi ve or nega ve depending on the conven ons listed in Figure 4. Consider a 3  cm tall object. If a lens forms an upright image that is 6 cm tall, the magnifica on of that lens is 2(or 2x,  meaning “two  mes”). On the contrary, an upside‐down image that is 1.5 cm tall yields a magnifica on  of ‐0.5. As you can see, magnifica ons greater than 1 imply an image that appears larger than the origi‐ nal object, while magnifica ons less than one produce images that appear smaller than the original  object.

f  =   c           2

M  =  h  =  ‐ si                 h0      so

71

Lab 6: Light

Mirrors:    concave:         convex:        All image and object distances are posi ve on the re‐ flec ng side of the mirror (object side) and nega ve if  “behind” the surface.

Lenses:    convex:  f > 0      concave: f < 0    so > 0 if object is on side of mirror that rays enter  si > 0 if image is on side opposite where rays enter   (real image)  si < 0 if image is on same side as where rays enter   (virtual image)

Figure 5: The Lens Equa on  The most useful equa on when dealing with mirrors and lenses is called the lens equa on. This  equa on works well, as long as the mirror you are working with is not too curved (meaning, small in  size compared to the radius of its curvature) and if the lens is thin. It relates the focal length f, the  object distance, so , and the image distance, si.

The following sign conven ons allow you to use this equa on with both mirrors and lenses. In gen‐ eral, real images are said to have posi ve distances, and virtual images are said to have nega ve dis‐ tances.

Example Lens Equa on Calcula on:    What image is produced when placing an object 9 cm. away from a convex lens that is 3 cm. long.    Given:  f = 3 cm.  so = 9 cm.    We need to solve for si to determine the image length. To do this, plug in the known variables and iso‐ late si on one side of the equa on.    1.   1   =   1 +   1           3        si         9  2.  3  ‐ 1 = 2   = 1          9     9    9      si   3.  9  = si          2      1     Answer: Si = 4.5 cm

1  =  1     +   1   f          si         so

f  =  ‐  C                2

f  =  C             2

72

Lab 6: Light

A ray diagram is helpful for showing how to find where images will form. Generally, three rays can be  used to locate the image formed by a mirror or a lens. The following examples in Figures 6‐8 will give you  a be er picture of how mirrors and lenses affect rays of light from objects.

Figure 6: A real image  formed by a concave mir‐ ror. Note the inverted

orienta on and the mag‐ nifica on.

Example Ray Diagrams

Figure 7: A virtual  image is formed in a

convex mirror.

73

Lab 6: Light

Experiment 1: Ray Diagrams  To complete this lab, you will need to draw three, separate ray diagrams. The start of each diagram has  been provided for you in the beginning of Procedure 1, Procedure 2, and Procedure 3, respec vely. It is  important that you use a ruler when drawing to ensure that each diagram reflects the correct dimensions  (listed at the top of every diagram.)     When drawing your diagrams, remember that the distances measured along the axis should begin at the  center of each lens (convex or concave). For example, a focal point that is marked at 5 cm should be posi‐ oned  5 cm away from the center of the lens. The diagrams indicate if the focal point or object is placed

to the right or le  of the lens.    Note: The size of your computer screen and the amount of “zoom” perspec ve you have applied to the  manual will affect the scales of the diagrams. It is important for you to rely on the numbers provided at  the top of each diagram, rather than measuring the dimensions of the images provided in the manual, to  create your diagram.    When you have completed your diagram, take a picture of it (using camera phone, digital camera,  webcam, etc.) or scan the image onto your computer. These diagrams should be included in the final doc‐ ument you submit with your post‐lab ques ons.

Figure 8: A real image formed by a convex lens. Again, note the inverted orienta on and the magnifica on.

Materials  Ruler  *White or graphing paper  *Pencil    *You must provide

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Lab 6: Light

Procedure 1: Concave Mirror  Please submit your ray diagrams and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.

1.  To begin, Ray 1 should be drawn horizontal from the top of the “object” and reflect through the focal  point f. To help you start the diagram, Ray 1 has been drawn in for you.

2.  Since rays trace the same path no ma er what direc on they are going, we can draw Ray 2 as the  “reverse” of Ray 1: this ray should be drawn through the focal point first, then reflect off the mirror  horizontally.*

3.  Finally, Ray 3 should be drawn through the center point C of the mirror, and reflect direc on back  through its origin. Why can we draw this ray like this (think about the radius of a circle)?

4.  If done correctly, these lines should all intersect at one point! Draw your new arrow from the axis to  the point of intersec on—what do you no ce about the orienta on of the real image?

5.  Measure and record the resul ng image distance and image height from your diagram.

f = ___________    si  = ___________    hi  = ___________      * As another op on, a ray may be drawn that reflects off the mirror’s center. This ray will reflect at the  same angle at which it is incident, as the mirror center is perpendicular to the horizontal.

so= 12.5 cm, C= 6.5 cm, ho= 4 cm

Ray 1

Object  f

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Lab 6: Light

Procedure 2: Convex Lens A  Please submit your ray diagrams and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.

1.  To begin, Ray 1 should be drawn horizontally from the top of the object, and refract through the focal

point f.    2.  Ray 2 goes directly through the center of the lens and does not refract.   3.  Ray 3 goes through the focal length on the object side, then refracts horizontally through the lens.   4.  Your three rays should intersect very at or very nearly at a single point.  Draw in the resul ng image as

another arrow.   5.  Measure and record the resul ng image distance and image height from your diagram.

si  = ___________    hi  = ___________

so= 8.8 cm, f = 3.2 cm, ho= 3.4cm

Object  f  f

Lab 6: Light

Procedure 3: Convex Lens B  Please submit your ray diagrams and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.

1.  For this diagram, the first part of Ray 1 is drawn for you. Determine what kind of image will form based

on the placement of the object inside the focal length? Finish this ray by bending the it inward and  down so that it passes through the right‐most focal point.

2.  Ray 2 is a li le more complicated because the object is placed closer to the lens than it is to the focal  point. Thus, the ray must be drawn as if it came from the focal point, travel towards the top por on of  the lens, and converge slightly once through the lens.

3.  Ray 3 begins at the top of the apex, and travels directly through the center of the lens. Is does not expe‐ rience any deflec on.

4.  So far, these rays do not intersect. Therefore, to determine where the image is formed you must ex‐ trapolate the rays backwards un l they create an intersec on point.

5.  Indicate where the new image will form on your ray diagram. What do you no ce about the size/ loca on of the image? Is this image real or virtual, and how do you know?

Object f

Ray 1

so= 3.7 cm, f = 6.0 cm, ho= 1.7cm

f

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Lab 6: Light

Ques ons  1.  Is the resul ng image for the concave mirror real or virtual, and how do you know? Use your meas‐

urements to calculate the magnifica on.                         M=__________________

2.  For the concave mirror, use the lens equa on, magnifica on equa on, and the provided distances  (not any measured image distances) to calculate si and hi. How do your measured values compare?

3.  Is your image for Convex Lens A real or virtual, and how do you know? Use your measurements to

calculate the magnifica on.                 M=__________________

4.  For Convex Lens A, use the lens equa on, magnifica on equa on, and the provided distances to  calculate si and hi. How do your measured values compare?

5.  Measure and record the image height and image distances for Convex Lens B.

Si =__________     hi =______________    6.  Is the image formed through Convex Lens B real or virtual, and how do you know? Use the lens

equa on to find si and hi , and compare this to the actual measurements.

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Lab 6: Light

Experiment 2: Exploring Mirrors  Concave and convex mirrors can create a variety of different images. A convex mirror reflects incoming rays  outward from its center—these rays are perceived by your eye as origina ng behind the mirror as a virtual  image. For a concave mirror, the forma on of either a virtual image or a real image depends on how close  the object is to its focal point. In this lab you will examine how both types of mirror create real and virtual  images.

Procedure / Observa ons   1.  Look into the side of the mirror that bulges out toward you. Write down how the image appears

(orienta on and magnifica on) and how many objects you can see in the background.   2.  Hold the mirror close to your face, and then gradually move it away. Note what happens to your image

as you get farther from the mirror.  3.  Now turn the mirror over and look into the side that bends inward. Note down how the image appears

(orienta on and magnifica on) and how many objects you can see in the background.   4.  Place this mirror as close as you can to your eyes and note what you see differently. Write down how

the orienta on and magnifica on change as you move the mirror farther away.                   Ques ons  Please submit your answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.    1.  What kind of mirror did you use in Procedure/Observa ons 1—is it convex or concave?

2.  Is your image in this type of mirror a virtual image or a real image? How do you know?

3.  Did the convex mirror give you a good view of a lot of objects to either side of you? Where have you

seen mirrors like this used, and what do you think makes them useful?

Materials  Concave/convex plas c mirror

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Lab 6: Light

4.  Is the other side of the mirror convex or concave? Comment on the magnifica on of this side of the  mirror when it is held very close to your eyes. How does the magnifica on change as you move it  away from your eyes?

5.  Is this a virtual image or a real image? Draw a ray diagram for a concave mirror with the object placed  inside the focal length (so < f ) to verify your answer.

Experiment 3: Exploring Lenses

Procedure 1  1.  Hold the convex lens at about 30 cm in front of your eyes, and hold it up to different objects (such as

a ruler or your lab manual page).   2.  Gradually move the lens farther from the object, and note what happens to your view of the object

through the lens. Record how the image appears and changes in the space below.   3.  Repeat the above steps with the concave lens, and record your observa ons.   4.  Use your observa ons to answer Ques ons 1‐2.     Observa ons  Please submit your observa ons and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.      Convex Lens:            Concave Lens:

Materials  1 Convex lens  1 Concave lens  Plain white paper*  Wax paper  Ruler  * You must provide

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Lab 6: Light

Procedure 2  1.  Find an area in your room or home with a bright window. Try to dim the inside lights in the area so

that the window provides most of the light—it helps if you can use a curtain to limit the amount of  light coming in.

2.  View the window through the lens while holding it at arm’s length. Move the lens back and forth  slowly un l you can see a clear image (if you can’t create an image easily, move yourself farther  from the window). Once you can see a clear image answer Ques on 3.

3.  Try to form an image of the window on your “screen” by changing the distance between the lens  and  the paper—this should occur when the lens is between 10 cm and 20 cm from the paper.  Once you can make a sharp image, move on to Ques ons 4 and 5.

Ques ons  1.  Describe the general orienta on and magnifica on of the images formed through the convex lens

before the image became blurry (this occurs when the image distance is larger than the distance  from the lens to your eye).

2.  What kind of image forms through the convex lens in the above situa on, and how do you know?

3.  How does the image of the window appear through the lens at this distance? What kind of image  is this, and how do you know?

4.  At what distance must you posi on the screen in order to view a clear image on the paper?

5.  Explain why the screen allows you to view this kind of image, but would not work in viewing the  images from Procedure 1.

Lab 7: Radioac vity

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Lab 7: Radioac vity

Concepts to explore:   Strong force   Radioac vity   Isotopes   Nuclear decay   Half‐life

All ma er consists of atoms. Most of ma er is actually empty space defined by electrons spinning  around a small nucleus of protons and neutrons. Therefore, there is abundant space within an atom.

Protons and neutrons are a racted to each other by strong and weak forces. The strong force is one of  the four basic forces in nature, and measures more than 100  mes stronger than the electric force.  However, it is only ac ve in short‐ranges such as in the nucleus of an atom. The larger the nucleus of  an atom the less affect the strong force has on the nucleus, as the electric force causes the protons and  neutrons to repel each other. For this reason, the resul ng net force decreases as the size of the nucle‐ us increases.

The nucleus can decay and give off ma er and energy when the strong force is not large enough to  hold the nucleus together. This process is called radioac vity. Nuclear decay occurs in all nuclei with  more than 83 protons; these atoms are both unstable and radioac ve.

The number of protons in an atom is constant and represented by the atomic number (See Figure 2). In  contrast, the number of neutrons present can vary. Atoms with the same number of protons and elec‐ trons, but different numbers of neutrons are called isotopes.  Isotopes have the same chemical proper‐

Figure 1: If a nucleus was the size of  a grain of sugar, the electron cloud  would span 10m from the grain in

all direc ons!

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Lab 7: Radioac vity

es, but the stability of the nuclei may differ. Nuclei that have too many  or too few neutrons rela ve to the number of protons are considered  unstable. The mass of an electron can be considered negligible com‐ pared with the mass of protons and neutrons; therefore, the mass of an  atom can be considered equivalent to the combined mass of protons and  neutrons in the atom. The combined mass gives rise to the mass num‐ ber.

Unstable nuclei are constantly changing as a result of the energy imbal‐ ance within the nucleus. As unstable nuclei decay, they emit par cles  and electromagne c energy called radia on. Radia on is energy trans‐ mi ed through space in the form of electromagne c waves or energe c  par cles. As radioac ve isotopes decay, they emit radia on only once.   However, it may take several steps for an unstable atom to become sta‐ ble, and radia on will be given off at each step. For this reason, radioac‐ ve sources become weaker with  me.  As more and more unstable at‐

oms of a material become stable through successive radioac ve decay, less radia on is produced by  the material and eventually the material will cease being radioac ve and unstable.

Radia on is a natural process and is categorized into three types, based on the decay product that is  released: alpha, beta, and gamma. When alpha radia on occurs, an alpha par cle made of two protons  and two neutrons is emi ed from the decaying nucleus. The alpha par cle has the charge of +2 and an  atomic mass of 4. Therefore, when an atom loses an alpha par cle it undergoes a transmuta on, and  becomes another element. They are the largest radia on par cle and also have the biggest electric  charge, which makes them lose energy quickly when they collide with other ma er. As a result, the  alpha par cles are the lowest penetra ng form of radia on, stoppable by a single sheet of paper. A  second type of radia on is caused when an unstable nucleus loses an electron from the neutron. This is  called beta radia on, and the electron that is lost is referred to as the beta par cle. This par cle is fast‐ er and more penetra ng than an alpha par cle, but can be stopped by a piece of aluminum foil. As  with alpha radia on, the atom undergoes a transmuta on when beta decay occurs, becoming an ele‐ ment with one more proton and an atomic number one greater than before.  The most penetra ng  form of radia on is gamma radia on. Gamma rays have no mass or charge and travel at the speed of  light, and require thick, dense materials (such as lead or concrete) to stop their penetra on. Gamma

rays are emi ed from the nucleus when alpha or  beta decay occurs.

The behavior and effects of the radioac ve iso‐ tope (radioisotope) are influenced by the half‐ life of that isotope.  The half‐life of a radioac ve  isotope is the amount of  me required for half  the nuclei in the sample to decay into something  else. It also provides informa on about the fre‐ quency of radioac ve emissions. Note that it  does not represent a fixed number of atoms that  disintegrate, but a frac on. A radioisotope with  a long half‐life will only infrequently emit radia‐ on, while a short‐lived radioac ve isotope will

 

6C    Figure 2: The nucleus symbol  includes the mass number  (above the C) as well as the

atomic number (below the C).  How many neutrons does car‐

bon‐14 have?

14

Radioisotope  Half‐life

Polonium‐215  0.0018 seconds

Bismuth‐212  60.5 seconds

Sodium‐24  15 hours

Iodine‐131  8.07 days

Cobalt‐60  5.26 years

Radium‐226  1,600 years

Carbon‐14  5,730 years

Uranium‐238  4.5 billion years

Table 1: Half lives of Some Radioisotopes

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Lab 7: Radioac vity

emit radia on repeatedly over a short period of  me. Half‐life varies widely among the radioisotopes,  from a frac on of a second to billions of years, as shown in Table 1.

Since the number of atoms present decreases by one half with the passing of each half‐life, the frac on  of atoms remaining can be calculated as:

½n = undecayed atoms

where n is the number of half‐lives that have passed.  A er one half‐life, 1/2 of the atoms remain un‐ stable (and undecayed), and the other half became something else to achieve stability. A er two half‐ lives, 1/4 ((½)2) of the  atoms in the sample are undecayed. A er three half‐lives, 1/8 ((½)3) atoms re‐ main undecayed, and so on.  This expression demonstrates how sequen al decay events result in a re‐ duc on in the amount of unstable radioisotopes present. The decay pa ern follows the characteris c  curve demonstrated in Figure 3 showing the decay rate of Carbon‐14.

Figure 3: Carbon‐14 has a half life of 5,730 years. A er 11,460 years (5,730 x 2) pass by, you might think that  there are zero elements remaining. However, there are half as many as were present a er 5,730  years passed.  The concept of half‐life is depicted in the graph above, showing how much of the element is present a er se‐

quen al half‐lives pass.

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Lab 7: Radioac vity

Materials  Ski les bag (approximately 60 candies)  5x8in. Resealable bag

Experiment 1: Es ma ng Half‐Life  While it would be nice to do an actual decay experiment, the  me, money, and equipment required is  unrealis c. Instead, you will use Ski les™ candies to demonstrate the concept of half‐life. The  Ski les™ represent atoms.

Procedure  1.  Count the number of candies in the Ski les bag. Record this number in Table 2.

2.  Place all of the candies into the resealable bag.

3.  Seal and shake the bag gently.

4.  Pour out the candy onto a flat surface, and count the number of candies with the print‐side up  (with the S on it). This represents the decayed atoms. Record this number in Table 2 next to the  Trial number.

5.  Return ONLY the pieces with the print side down into the resealable bag. Remove the print‐side up  candies and set them aside (Note: You will repeat this experiment two more  mes, so do not dis‐ card the Ski les™ you set aside!).

6.  Repeat steps 3‐5 un l all of the atoms have decayed (Note: you may not need all rows in the table  or you might need more rows).

7.  Repeat the above procedure two  mes, recording the results in Table 2. Average the number of  decayed atoms for each trial, repor ng the calcula on in Table 2.

8.  Calculate the percentage of decayed atoms based on the average number of decayed atoms for  each trial. Put a check next to the trial with the calculated percentage of decayed atoms that most  closely matches 1/2 (50%), 1/4 (25%), 1/8 (12.5%), and 1/16 (6.25%). You will use this data to plot a  graph similar to Figure 3 showing the half‐life of Carbon‐14 for Ques on 3.

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Lab 7: Radioac vity

Please submit your table data and answers for this experiment on the Word document provided to you.

Table 2: Half‐life experimental results

 

Ques ons  1.  What is meant by the term half‐life?

 

2.  At the end of two half‐lives, what percentage of atoms (Ski les™) have not decayed? Show your  calcula on.

Total number of  atoms

Trial   Number of decayed atoms

Average

1st Round  2nd Round  3rd Round

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Percentage of decayed      atoms

(from original number)

88

Lab 7: Radioac vity

3.  Using your data, graph the number of undecayed atoms vs. trials below to show when 1/2, 1/4,  1/8, and 1/16 of your Ski les remain (use the values next to the boxes you put checks next to in  Step 8 of the procedure).

4.  How would the graph change if 20 Ski les were used in this experiment?

5.  If 1/8 of a radioac ve element remains a er 600 years, what is that element’s half‐life?

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Biology Questions On Cancer

1. What are the causes of skin cancer?

2. Why are Caucasians more at risk of skin cancer than other populations?

3. At what age does skin cancer typically occur? Is the incidence of skin cancer greater in youth or old age?

4. Does the amount of UV light reaching the Earth vary in a predictable manner (Figure 6-3)? If so, describe the pattern you observe.

5. What latitude receives the greatest amount of UV light (Figure 6-3)? The least?

6. Based on these data (Figure 6-3), where might you expect to find the most lightly pigmented and most darkly pigmented people on the planet? Be as specific as you can.

7. Provide a rationale to your answer above (i.e., why did you think that more darkly pigmented people would be found in those areas)?

8. Interpret Figure 6-4 and the trend it describes.

A. Is skin reflectance randomly distributed throughout the globe? If not, how would you describe the pattern?

B. Restate your findings in terms of skin color and UV light (instead of skin reflectance and latitude).

C. How closely do these findings match the predictions of your hypothesis (Question 6)?

D. Some populations have skin colors that are darker or lighter than predicted based on their loca­tion. Their data point falls somewhere outside of the line shown in (Figure 6-4). What might ex­plain the skin color of these exceptional populations? Propose a few hypotheses.

E. Hypothesize why different skin colors have evolved.

9. Hypothesize why different skin colors have evolved. Based on what you know, what factor is most likely to exert a selective pressure on skin color?

10. Review your answer to Question 3. Keeping your answer in mind, how strong a selective pressure do you expect skin cancer (UV-induced mutations) to exert on reproductive success?

11. Based on this information, does your hypothesis about the evolution of skin color (Question 9) seem likely? Why or why not? How does skin color meet, or fail to meet, the three requirements of natural selection outlined above?

12. Based on Branda and Eaton’s results (Figure 6-5), what is the apparent effect of UV light exposure on blood folate levels?

13. What is the apparent effect of UV light on folate levels in these test tubes? __________________

14. How is folate linked to natural selection?

15. All other things being equal, which skin tone would you expect to be correlated with higher levels of folate? _________________________________________________________________________

16. Based on this new information, revise your hypothesis to explain the evolution of human skin color.

17. What would happen to the reproductive success of:

A.light-skinnedperson living in the tropics? _________________________________________

B. light-skinned person living in the polar region? _____________________________________

C.dark-skinned person living in the tropics? _________________________________________

D.  dark-skinned person living in the polar region? _____________________________________

18. Predict the skin tones expected at different latitudes, taking folate needs into consideration. Use the world map (Figure 6-6) to indicate the skin tone expected at each latitude (shade the areas where populations are darkly pigmented).

19. Can folate explain the variation and distribution of light- and dark-skinned individuals around the world?

20. How is vitamin D linked to natural selection?

21. Which skin tone allows someone to maintain the recommended level of vitamin D? ________________

22. Based on this new information, revise your hypothesis to explain the evolution of the variation and distribution of human skin color.

23. Taking only vitamin D into consideration, what would happen to the reproductive success of:

A. light-skinned person living in the tropics? _________________________________________

B. light-skinned person living in the polar region? _____________________________________

C. dark-skinned person living in the tropics? _________________________________________

D. dark-skinned person living in the polar region? _____________________________________

24. Predict the skin tones expected at different latitudes, taking only vitamin D needs into consider­ation. Use the world map (Figure 6-8) to indicate the skin tone expected at each latitude (shade a region to represent pigmented skin in that population).

25. Can vitamin D alone explain the current world distribution of skin color? ____________________

26. Using principles of natural selection, predict the skin tone expected at different latitudes, taking ul­traviolet exposure, vitamin D, and folate needs into consideration. Use the map (Figure 6-9) to indicate skin tone patterns at different latitudes (shade regions where populations are expected to be darkly pigmented).

27. Are UV light, vitamin D and folate needs sufficient to explain the current world distribution of skin color? ___________________________________________________________________________

28. How might you explain that Inuits, living at northern latitudes, are relatively dark-skinned (much more so than expected for their latitude)? Propose a hypothesis.

29. Conversely, Northern Europeans are slightly lighter-skinned than expected for their latitude. Pro­pose a hypothesis to explain this observation.

 
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HW HW

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 1 of 7

Activity Student Handout

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

INTRODUCTION Our closest primate relatives have pale skin under dark fur, but human skin comes in a variety of shades from pinkish white to dark brown. How did this variation arise? Many biological traits have been shaped by natural selection. To determine whether the variation in human skin color is the result of evolution by natural selection, scientists look for patterns revealing an association between different versions of the trait and the environment. Then they look for selective pressures that can explain the association.

In this lesson, you will explore some of the evidence for selection by analyzing data and watching the film The Biology of Skin Color (http://www.hhmi.org/biointeractive/biology-skin-color), featuring anthropologist Dr. Nina Jablonski. In Part 1 of this lesson, you’ll discover the particular environmental factor correlated with the global distribution of skin color variations. In Parts 2 and 3, you’ll come to understand the specific selective pressures that have shaped the evolution of the trait. Finally, in Part 4, you’ll investigate how modern human migration is causing a mismatch between biology and the environment.

PROCEDURE Read the information in Parts 1–4 below, watching segments of the film and pausing as directed. Answer the questions in each section before proceeding to the next.

PART 1: Is There a Connection Between UV Radiation and Skin Color? Watch the film from the beginning to time stamp 5:49 minutes. Pause when Dr. Nina Jablonski asks the question, “Is there a connection between the intensity of UV radiation and skin color?”

In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski explains that the sun emits energy over a broad spectrum of wavelengths. In particular, she mentions visible light that you see and ultraviolet (UV) radiation that you can’t see or feel. (Wavelengths you feel as heat are in a portion of the spectrum called infrared.) UV radiation has a shorter wavelength and higher energy than visible light. It has both positive and negative effects on human health, as you will learn in this film. The level of UV radiation reaching Earth’s surface can vary depending on the time of day, the time of year, latitude, altitude, and weather conditions.

The UV Index is a standardized scale that forecasts the intensity of UV radiation at any given time and location in the globe; the higher the number, the greater the intensity. Examine Figure 1 on the next page and answer Questions 1–6.

1. Describe the relationship between the UV Index (the colored bar in Figure 1) and latitude (y-axis).

2. How do you explain the relationship between the UV Index and latitude? (In other words, why does UV intensity change with latitude?)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

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Activity Student Handout

3. Find your approximate location on the map. What is the primary UV Index value of your state on this particular day in September? _________

4. Look at the regions that receive the most-intense UV (light pink). Site a specific piece of evidence from the map that a factor other than latitude was contributing to UV intensity on this day.

5. In the film, Dr. Jablonski explains that melanin, located in the top layer of human skin, absorbs UV radiation, protecting cells from the damaging effects of UV. Genetics determines the type of melanin (i.e., brown/black eumelanin or red/brown pheomelanin) and the amount of melanin present in an individual’s cells. Based on this information, write a hypothesis for where in the world you would expect to find human populations with darker or lighter skin pigmentation (i.e., different amounts of melanin).

6. Explain how scientists could test this hypothesis.

Figure 1. Ultraviolet Radiation Index Across the World. The colors on this map of the world represent Ultraviolet (UV) Index values on a particular day in September 2015. The UV Index is a standardized scale of UV radiation intensity running from 0 (least intense) to 18 (most intense). The y-axis values are degrees of latitude, which range from the equator (0°) to the poles (90° north and −90° south). The x-axis values are degrees of longitude, which range from the prime meridian (0°) to the antimeridian (180° east and −180° west). (Source: European Space Agency, http://www.temis.nl/uvradiati on/UVindex.html.)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

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Activity Student Handout

You will now look at another figure that has to do with skin color. One way to measure skin color is by skin reflectance. Scientists can shine visible light on a portion of skin (typically the inside of the arm) and then measure how much light is reflected back. Dark skin reflects less visible light than does light skin. The lower the reflectance value, therefore, the darker the skin. Examine Figure 2 and answer Questions 7–9.

7. Why do you think that reflectance data are collected from a subject’s inner arm?

8. Describe the relationship between skin reflectance (y-axis) and latitude (x-axis). Consider both the direction and steepness of the lines’ slopes.

9. Do these data support your hypothesis from Question 5? Justify your answer.

Watch the film from time stamp 5:49 minutes to 9:08 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “That suggests that variation in human skin melanin production arose as different populations adapted biologically to different solar conditions around the world.” After watching this segment of the film, answer Question 10.

10. Based on what you know about skin pigmentation so far, suggest a mechanism by which UV intensity could provide a selective pressure on the evolution of human skin color. In other words, propose a hypothesis that links skin color to evolutionary fitness.

Figure 2. Relationship Between Skin Reflectance and Latitude. This figure shows how skin reflectance changes with latitude. Negative latitudes are south of the equator (located at 0°), and positive latitudes are north of the equator. Available reflectance data from multiple sources were combined to form this graph. All combined data were obtained using a reflectometer with an output of 680 nanometers (i.e., a wavelength of visible light) and placed on the subjects’ upper or lower inner arms. (Source: Panel B of Figure 2 in Barsh (2003). Graph originally captioned as “Summary of 102 skin reflectance samples for males as a function of latitude, redrawn from Relethford (1997).” © 2003 Public Library of Science.)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

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Activity Student Handout

PART 2: What Was the Selective Pressure? Watch the film from time stamp 9:08 minutes to 12:19 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “For that reason, though it might cut your life short, it’s unlikely to affect your ability to pass on your genes.” After watching this segment of the film, answer Questions 11–13.

11. What does it mean for a trait, such as light skin coloration, to be under negative selection in equatorial Africa? Relate negative selective pressure to what we know about MC1R allele diversity among African populations.

12. Why does Dr. Jablonski dismiss the hypothesis that protection from skin cancer provided selection for the evolution of darker skin in our human ancestors?

13. Revisit your hypothesis from Question 10. Based on the information you have now, does this seem like a more or less probable hypothesis than when you first proposed it? Provide evidence to support your reasoning.

Watch the film from time stamp 12:19 minutes to 13:32 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “That is what melanin does.” In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski references a paper she had read about the connection between UV exposure and the essential nutrient folate (a B vitamin), which circulates throughout the body in the blood. The paper, published in 1978, describes how the serum (blood) folate concentrations differed between two groups of light-skinned people. You will now look at one of the figures from that paper. Examine Figure 3 and answer Questions 14–17.

Figure 3. Folate Levels in Two Groups of People. In one group (“patients”), 10 individuals were exposed to intense UV light for at least 30–60 minutes once or twice a week for three months. Sixty-four individuals not receiving this treatement (“normals”) served as the control group. The difference between the two groups was statistically significant (p < 0.005). Brackets represent the standard error of the mean, and “ng/mL” means “nanograms per milliliter.” (Republished with permission of the American Assn for the Advancement of Science, from Skin color and nutrient photolysis: an evolutionary hypothesis, Branda, RF and Eaton, JW, 201:4356, 1978; permission conveyed through Copyright Clearance Center, Inc.)

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Activity Student Handout

14. Describe the relationship between folate levels and UV exposure. Use specific data from the graph to support your answer.

15. Dr. Jablonski describes learning that low folate levels are linked to severe birth defects as a “eureka moment.” Explain what she means by this.

16. Based on this new information, revise your hypothesis to explain the selective pressure on the evolution of human skin color.

17. Can the effects of UV light on folate explain the full variation of human skin color that exists among human populations today? Explain your reasoning.

PART 3: Why Aren’t We All Dark Skinned? Watch the film from time stamp 13:32 minutes to 16:04 minutes. Pause when Dr. Jablonski says, “Support for the idea that the UV–vitamin D connection helped drive the evolution of paler skin comes from the fact that indigenous peoples with diets rich in this essential vitamin have dark pigmentation.”

Unlike many essential nutrients, vitamin D is produced by the human body. One type of UV radiation called UVB starts a chain of reactions that convert 7-dehydrocholesterol—a chemical found in skin—to vitamin D. Vitamin D is essential to the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the foods we eat to make strong bones. It is also important for reproductive health and for the maintenance of a strong immune system. How much UVB exposure is necessary to synthesize sufficient vitamin D depends largely on two factors: UVB intensity and skin color. In general, at a given UV intensity, a dark-skinned individual must be exposed to UVB five times as long as a light-skinned individual to synthesize the same amount of vitamin D.

Dr. Jablonski and Dr. George Chaplin published a paper in which they theorize whether available UV around the world would enable individuals with different skin colors to synthesize an adequate amount of vitamin D. Figure 4 and Table 1 summarize the results. Analyze Figure 4 and Table 1 and answer Questions 18–21.

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Activity Student Handout

Table 1. Key to Zones in Figure 4.

Skin Pigmentation Wide Diagonals Narrow Diagonals Dots

Light N Y Y

Moderate N N Y

Dark N N N

Note: “Y” means that an individual with that skin pigmentation could synthesize sufficient vitamin D in the region indicated throughout the year. “N” means that the person could not.

18. Based on these data, describe the populations least likely to synthesize sufficient levels of vitamin D. Explain your answer with data from the figure.

19. How do these data support the hypothesis that the evolution of lighter skin colors was driven by selection for vitamin D production?

20. For a person living farther away from the equator, would the risk of vitamin D deficiency be uniform or vary throughout the year? If it would vary, how would it vary? Explain your reasoning.

Figure 4. Comparison of Geographic Areas in Which Mean UVB Intensity Would Not Be Sufficient for Vitamin D Synthesis by Populations with Different Skin Colors. Widely spaced diagonal lines show regions in which UVB radiation, averaged over an entire year, is not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis by people with lightly, moderately, and darkly pigmented skin. Narrowly spaced diagonal lines show regions in which UVB radiation is not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis by people with moderately and darkly pigmented skin. The dotted pattern shows regions in which UVB radiation averaged over the year is not sufficient for vitamin D synthesis in people with darkly pigmented skin. (Reprinted from The Journal of Human Evolution, 39:1, Nina G. Jablonski and George Chaplin, The Evolution of Human Skin Coloration, 57-106, Copyright 2000, with permission from Elsevier.)

Human Skin Color: Evidence for Selection

Human Evolution Revised April 2018 www.BioInteractive.org Page 7 of 7

Activity Student Handout

21. Vitamin D and folate levels in the blood are both affected by UV light. Describe the predicted effects of using a tanning booth (which exposes skin to UV light) on the blood levels of these two vitamins.

22. Based on everything that you have learned so far, provide an explanation for how the different shades of skin color from pinkish white to dark brown evolved throughout human history.

PART 4: How Does Recent Migration Affect Our Health? Watch the film from time stamp 16:04 minutes to the end. In this segment of the film, Dr. Jablonski and Dr. Zalfa Abdel-Malek explain that some people are living in environments that are not well matched to their skin colors. One example is vitamin D production. The recommended level of circulating vitamin D is 20 ng/mL (nanograms per milliliter). But, as you learned in Part 3, vitamin D production is affected by UV intensity and skin color.

Figure 5 shows the concentrations of serum 25(OH)D vitamin, which is the main type of vitamin D that circulates in blood. Measurements were taken among people living in the United States and were standardized to negate the effects of weight, age, and other factors. Examine Figure 5 and answer Questions 22 and 23.

23. Describe the trends visible in the data. Which subpopulation (gender, race/ethnicity) is at the greatest risk for vitamin D deficiency? Which subpopulation is at the least risk for vitamin D deficiency?

24. What is one of the consequences of recent human migrations on human health?

Figure 5. Adjusted mean serum 25(OH)D levels according to race/ethnicity and stratified according to gender (n = 2629). aAdjusted for gender, age, weight, education, income, urban, region; b adjusted for age, weight, education, income, urban, region. (Reproduced with permission from Pediatrics 123, 797-803, Copyright© 2009 by the AAP.)

  • Introduction
  • PROCEDURE
    • PART 1: Is There a Connection Between UV Radiation and Skin Color?
    • PART 2: What Was the Selective Pressure?
    • PART 3: Why Aren’t We All Dark Skinned?
    • PART 4: How Does Recent Migration Affect Our Health?
  1. question 1:
  2. question 3:
  3. question 4:
  4. question 5:
  5. question 2:
  6. question 6:
  7. question 7:
  8. question 8:
  9. question 9:
  10. question 11:
  11. question 12:
  12. question 13:
  13. question 14:
  14. question 15:
  15. question 16:
  16. question 17:
  17. question 18:
  18. question 19:
  19. question 20:
  20. question 21:
  21. question 22:
  22. question 10:
  23. question 23:
  24. question 24:
 
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