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Milestone Two: Draft Of Billing, Marketing, And Reimbursement

Milestone Two: Draft Of Billing, Marketing, And Reimbursement

HCM 345 Milestone Two Guidelines and Rubric

Overview: Much of what happens in healthcare is about understanding the expectations of the many departments and personnel within the organization. Reimbursement drives the financial operations of healthcare organizations; each department affects the reimbursement process regarding timelines and the amount of money put into and taken out of the system. However, if departments do not follow the guidelines put into place or do not capture the necessary information, it can be detrimental to the reimbursement system.

An important role for patient financial services (PFS) personnel is to monitor the reimbursement process, analyze the reimbursement process, and suggest changes to help maximize the reimbursement. One way to make this process more efficient is by ensuring that the various departments and personnel are exposed to the necessary knowledge.

Milestone Two provides you an opportunity to engage with real-world data and tools that you would encounter in an actual professional environment. Specifically, you will begin thinking about reimbursement in terms of billing and marketing. Reimbursement is a complex process with several stakeholders; this milestone allows you to begin thinking about the key players, including third-party billing, data collection, staff management, and ensuring compliance. Marketing and communication also plays a vital role in reimbursement; this milestone offers a chance to begin analyzing effective strategies and their impact. Prompt: Submit your draft of Sections III and IV of the final project. Specifically, the following critical elements must be addressed:

III. Billing and Reimbursement

a. Analyze the collection of data by patient access personnel and its importance to the billing and collection process. Be sure to address the importance of exceptional customer service.

b. Analyze how third-party policies would be used when developing billing guidelines for patient financial services (PFS) personnel and administration when determining the payer mix for maximum reimbursement.

c. Organize the key areas of review in order of importance for timeliness and maximization of reimbursement from third-party payers. Explain your rationale on the order.

d. Describe a way to structure your follow-up staff in terms of effectiveness. How can you ensure that this structure will be effective? e. Develop a plan for periodic review of procedures to ensure compliance. Include explicit steps for this plan and the feasibility of enacting this plan

within this organization.

IV. Marketing and Reimbursement

a. Analyze the strategies used to negotiate new managed care contracts. Support your analysis with research. b. Communicate the important role that each individual within this healthcare organization plays with regard to managed care contracts. Be sure to

include the different individuals within the healthcare organization. c. Explain how new managed care contracts impact reimbursement for the healthcare organization. Support your explanation with concrete

evidence or research.

d. Discuss the resources needed to ensure billing and coding compliance with regulations and ethical standards. What would happen if these resources were not obtained? Describe the consequences of noncompliance with regulations and ethical standards.

Rubric

Guidelines for Submission: Your draft must be submitted as a three- to five-page Microsoft Word document with double spacing, 12-point Times New Roman font, one-inch margins, and at least three sources, which should be cited in APA format.

Critical Elements Proficient (100%) Needs Improvement (75%) Not Evident (0%) Value

Billing and Reimbursement: Data

Analyzes the collection of data by patient access personnel and its importance to the billing and collection process, including the importance of exceptional customer service

Analyzes the collection of data by patient access personnel and its importance to the billing and collection process but does not include the importance of exceptional customer service

Does not analyze the collection of data by patient access personnel

Billing and Reimbursement: Third-

Party Policies

Analyzes how third-party policies would be used when developing billing guidelines for PFS personnel and administration when determining the payer mix for maximum reimbursement

Analyzes how third-party policies would be used but does not apply analysis toward the development of billing guidelines for PFS personnel and administration or toward the determination of the payer mix for maximum reimbursement

Does not analyze how third-party policies would be used

Billing and Reimbursement: Key

Areas of Review

Organizes and explains the key areas of review in order of importance for timeliness and maximization of reimbursement from third-party payers

Organizes and explains the key areas of review in order of importance for timeliness and maximization of reimbursement from third-party payers, but explanation is cursory or illogical

Does not organize and explain the key areas of review in order of importance for timeliness and maximization of reimbursement from third-party payers

Billing and Reimbursement:

Structure

Describes a way to structure follow-up staff in terms of effectiveness and explains rationale for effectiveness

Describes a way to structure follow-up staff in terms of effectiveness but does not explain rationale for effectiveness

Does not describe a way to structure follow- up staff in terms of effectiveness

Billing and Reimbursement: Plan

Develops a plan for periodic review of procedures to ensure compliance, including explicit steps and the feasibility of enacting the plan

Develops a plan for periodic review of procedures to ensure compliance but does not include explicit steps or does not include the feasibility of enacting the plan

Does not develop a plan for periodic review of procedures to ensure compliance

Marketing and Reimbursement:

Strategies

Analyzes the strategies used to negotiate new managed care contracts, supporting analysis with research

Analyzes the strategies used to negotiate new managed care contracts but does not support analysis with research

Does not analyze the strategies used to negotiate new managed care contracts

Critical Elements Proficient (100%) Needs Improvement (75%) Not Evident (0%) Value

Marketing and Reimbursement:

Communicate

Communicates the important role that each individual within this healthcare organization plays with regard to managed care contracts, including the different types of individuals within the organization

Communicates the important role that each individual within this healthcare organization plays with regard to managed care contracts but does not include the different types of individuals within the organization

Does not communicate the important role that each individual within this healthcare organization plays with regard to managed care contracts

Marketing and Reimbursement:

Contracts

Explains how new managed care contracts impact reimbursement for the healthcare organization, including support for explanation with concrete evidence or research

Explains how new managed care contracts impact reimbursement for the healthcare organization but does not include support for explanation with concrete evidence or research

Does not explain how new managed care contracts impact reimbursement for the healthcare organization

Marketing and Reimbursement:

Compliance

Comprehensively discusses the resources needed to ensure billing and coding compliance with regulations and ethical standards

Discusses the resources needed to ensure billing and coding compliance with regulations and ethical standards, but discussion is not comprehensive

Does not discuss the resources needed to ensure billing and coding compliance

Articulation of Response

Submission has no major errors related to citations, grammar, spelling, syntax, or organization

Submission has major errors related to citations, grammar, spelling, syntax, or organization that negatively impact readability and articulation of main ideas

Submission has critical errors related to citations, grammar, spelling, syntax, or organization that prevent understanding of ideas

Total 100%

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Item Development and Analysis Worksheet

Item Development and Analysis Worksheet

Item Development and Analysis Worksheet

Student Name: Section: PSYC421-

PART 1: Writing Multiple Choice Test Items

Develop one multiple choice question that covers content from each of the four chapters listed below. When writing your sample questions, please keep in mind the specifications regarding item construction discussed in the textbook. Also, remember the importance of carefully crafted distractor options. Finally, please limit the number of response options to 4 (1 correct response and 3 distractors), and avoid the options of “all of the above,” none of the above,” or the like. Be sure to indicate which of the response options is the correct one.

Chapter 3 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

An estimate of the relaibility of a speed test is a measure of ?

A) the consistancy of flood

B) the consistancy of response

C) the consistancy of the response speed

D) the consistancy of the response of intensity

Chapter 4 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

Chapter 5 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

Chapter 6 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

PART 2: Item Analysis: Item Difficulty Index(Cohen et al., 2013, pg. 263)

A test is only as good as its questions! When researchers, test constructors, and educators create items for ability or achievement tests, we have a responsibility to evaluate the items and make sure that they are useful and high-quality. The process that we use to evaluate test items is known as Item Analysis. When bad items are identified and eliminated from a test, that increases the efficiency, reliability and validity of the entire test! One way that we can distinguish among good and bad items is with the Item Difficulty Index.

Part 2A: Calculating Item Difficulty

Using the data below, calculate the Item Difficulty Index for the first 6 items onQuiz 1 from a recent section of PSYC101. For each item, “1” means the item was answered correctly and “0” means it was answered incorrectly. Type your answers in the spaces provided at the bottom of the table. (1 pt. each)

PSYC101 Quiz 1 Item Distribution and Total Scores
Examinee	Item 1	Item 2	Item 3	Item 4	Item 5	Item 6	Total Score
Andre	1	1	1	1	1	1	16
Allison	1	1	1	1	0	0	7
Heather	1	1	1	1	0	0	10
Corey	1	1	0	1	1	1	17
Christina	0	0	1	1	0	1	3
Jeffrey	0	1	1	1	0	0	11
Shawn	1	1	1	1	0	1	14
Dana	0	0	1	1	0	1	10
Megan	1	1	1	1	0	1	13
David	0	1	1	1	0	1	12
Isabel	0	0	0	1	0	0	4
Lance	1	1	1	1	0	0	9
Aliyah	1	1	1	1	0	1	15
Blaire	0	1	1	1	0	1	12
Gabriel	0	0	1	1	0	0	6
Item Difficulty	53.333	73.333	86.667	100	13.333	60

Part 2B: Calculating Optimal Item Difficulty (.5 pt. each)

1. For a test item with two response options (e.g., true/false), what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

2. Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with two response options.

3. For a test item with three response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

4. Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with three response options.

5. For a test item with four response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

6. Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with four response options.

7. For a test item with five response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

8. Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with five response options.

PART 3: Item Analysis: Item Discrimination Index(Cohen et al., 2013, pg. 265–266)

Another way that test creators can distinguish between good and bad items is with an analysis called the Discrimination Index. The discrimination index measures how well an individual test item distinguishes between high scorers and low scores on the test. An item is considered to be “good” if most of the high scorers get it right, and most of the low scorers get it wrong.

Interpreting the Discrimination Index (d)

· The discrimination index can range from -1.0 to 1.0.

· The closer d is to 1.0, the better the item discriminates between high and low scorers

· The closer d is to 0, the more poorly the item discriminates between high and low scorers.

· An item with a negative discrimination index is considered a “negative discriminator” because more low scorers get the item correct than high scorers.

· A discrimination index of 1.0 means all the high scorers got the item correct and all of the low scorers got it incorrect.

· A discrimination index of -1.0 means all of the low scorers got the item correct and all of the high scorers got it incorrect.

· Items with d’s close to 0 or with negative d’s ought to be eliminated from the test!

Calculating the Item Discrimination Index (d)

Calculate the item discrimination index (d) for the 7 hypothetical test items presented below. Type your answers in the spaces provided at the right of the table (1 pt. each).

Item #	U	L	n	d
Item 1	21	17	25
Item 2	23	7	25
Item 3	25	0	25
Item 4	3	24	25
Item 5	22	3	25
Item 6	0	25	25
Item 7	19	6	25

Based on your calculations above, answer the following questions (1 pt. each).

1. Which item discriminates the best?

2. Which item discriminates most poorly?

3. Based on your analysis, identify which two items would you choose to eliminate from this test and explain why you would eliminate each.

Part 4: Item Characteristic Curves (Cohen et al., pg. 268–270)

Another method that test creators can use to assess the usefulness of test items is with Item Characteristic Curves. Item characteristic curves provide a graphical depiction of examinees’ performance on individual test items. As indicated in the figure below, Total Test Score is plotted on the x-axis of the curve, while proportion of examinees who got the item correct is plotted on the y-axis

Using the figure above, provide a written description of how test items A–D discriminate among examinees at various levels of performance. In your responses, discuss why each item would be considered a “good” or a “bad” item. EXAMPLE: “This item discriminates well among high scores, but doesn’t discriminate well among low scorers. So this item would be considered a good item because it discriminates at the highest levels of performance.” (2 pt. each)

Item A:

Item B:

Item C:

Item D:

Item E:

Part 5: Qualitative Item Analysis (Cohen et al., pg. 272–274)

Qualitative item analysis refers to a set of non-statistical procedures used to gather information about the usefulness of test items. These analyses typically involve interviews, panel discussions, questionnaires and other forms of verbal exchange with test-takers to explore how individual test items work.

As an online student, you have a very different test-taking experience than residential students. Based on your readings from Chapter 8, identify 4 topics related to online test taking, and create 4 qualitative questions that you could ask online test-takers to gain an understanding of their experiences with test-taking. Also, as students at a Christian institution of higher education, course assignments/assessments are supposed to give students an opportunity to integrate course content with their Christian worldview. Given the topic of faith and learning, create one qualitative question that you could ask test-takers.

Qualitative Item Analysis
Topic (1 pt. each)	Sample Question for Test-Takers (1 pt. each)

Assignment Scoring

Part 1 Subtotal:

Part 2 Subtotal:

Part 3 Subtotal:

Part 4 Subtotal:

Part 5 Subtotal:

TOTAL SCORE:

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Psychology homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

PSYCH/610 Version 2

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Use the table below to answer the following:

· Define and distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research.

· Provide examples of qualitative and quantitative research.

· Imagine that you are a researcher interested in identifying the components of ‘giftedness’ in pre-teen children. What quantitative methods might you use to help you better understand the experience of giftedness? What qualitative methods might you use?

· What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach?

Definition

Examples

Examples of methods to study ‘giftedness’

Advantages

Disadvantages

Quantitative

Research

Qualitative

Research

Week Three Homework Exercise

PSYCH/610 Version 2

Week Three Homework Exercise

Answer the following questions covering material from Ch. 6 & 7 of Methods in Behavioral Research:

1. What is reactivity? Explain how reactivity impacts measurement.

2. What are the key features of an experimental design, or ‘true experiment’? How does this compare to case studies?

3. What is survey research and when is it most useful?

4. What issues should be considered when constructing surveys? What are the implications of double-barreled, loaded, and negative questions?

5. What are some survey administration methods? When are each of these methods most appropriate?

6. Define interview bias and provide an example.

7. What is the difference between probability and non-probability sampling techniques?

8. A researcher attends an art reception in a major metropolitan city. She decides to approach people over the age of 50 and ask them to fill out a brief survey about purchasing artwork. Is this a probability or a non-probability sampling technique? What type of sampling procedure is this—simple random, stratified random, cluster, haphazard, purposive, or quota?

9. What is the relationship between sample size and survey results? What are some techniques to evaluate potential sampling bias?

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Wk 3 Psychology homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Wk 3 Psychology homework help

Resources for this week’s question, please incorporate resources into answer.

Babbie, E. (2017). Basics of social research (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

· Chapter 15, “Reading and Writing Social Research”

· Laureate Education (Producer). (2016b). Literature review [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.

· Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 8 minutes.

· Dr. Patton speaks about the role of literature in the research process.

· Accessible player –Downloads– Download Video w/CC Download Audio Download Transcript

Brown, M. (2013). Developing social problems into research problems for graduate study [Online webcast]. Retrieved from Evaluating Use of Literature and Problem Statement

Researchers use scholarly literature for various purposes in their work, such as, but not limited to, establishing the need for and importance of their study or describing a theory. The problem statement is typically tied to the literature, and for this reason, these two components of research are presented together this week; this connection among research components will be a recurring theme throughout this course.

For this Discussion, you will evaluate the use of literature and problem statements in assigned journal articles in your discipline to understand what it means for a research study to be justified, grounded, and original. You will use the Use of Literature Checklist, the Problem Statement Checklist, and the Litmus Test as guides for your post.

With these thoughts in mind, refer to the Journal Articles document for your assigned articles for this Discussion. If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Follow the prompt below for your program.

Master’s and research doctorate (PhD) students

By Day 4

Post a critique of the research study in which you:

· Evaluate the authors’ use of literature using the Use of Literature Checklist as a guide

· Evaluate the research problem using the Problem Statement Checklist as a guide

· Explain what it means for a research study to be justified and grounded in the literature; then, explain what it means for a problem to be original using the Litmus Test as a guide

Be sure to support your Main Issue Post and Response Post with reference to the week’s Learning Resources and other scholarly evidence in APA Style.

Stedman-Smith, M., DuBois, C. L., & Grey, S. F. (2015). Hand hygiene performance and beliefs among public university employees. Journal of Health Psychology, 20(10), 1263–1274. doi: 10.1177/1359105313510338

By Day 4

Post a critique of the research study in which you:

Evaluate the authors’ use of literature using the Use of Literature Checklist as a guide.
Evaluate the problem using the Problem Statement Checklist as a guide.
Explain what it means for a research study to be justified and grounded in the literature; then, explain what it means for a problem to be original using the Litmus Test as a guide

· https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=udfldYXvUxw&feature=youtu.be

Problem Statement Checklist Use the following criteria to evaluate an author’s problem statement:

• Is a problem identified that leads to the need for this study?

• Is a rationale or justification for the problem clearly stated?

• Is the problem framed in a way that is consistent with the research approach?

• Does the statement convey how the study will address the problem?

• Are the citations to literature current (i.e., within the past 5 years with the exception of seminal works)?

Use of Literature Checklist

Use the following criteria to evaluate an author’s use of literature.

• Look for indications of the following ways the author used literature:

• Introduce a problem

• Introduce a theory

• Provide direction to the research questions and/or hypotheses

• Compare results with existing literature or predictions

• Did the author mention the problem addressed by the study?

• Is the purpose of the study stated?

• Are key variables in the study defined?

• Is information about the sample, population, or participants provided?

• Are the key results of the study summarized?

• Does the author provide a critique of the literature?

• Are sources cited to support points?

• Are the citations to recent literature (within the past 5 years with the exception of seminal works)?

• Does the literature justify the importance of the topic studied?

Litmus Test for a Doctoral-Level Research Problem

Background on these “litmus test” questions

· The distinguishing characteristic of doctoral-level research (as opposed to masters level) is that it must make an original contribution to the field. However, students may struggle to identify what will authentically contribute to their field or discipline.

· The most critical step in making such a contribution is to first identify a research problem with the 4 doctoral hallmarks below. Identifying a doctoral-level research problem is “necessary, but not sufficient,” to produce doctoral-level capstone.

REQUIRED DOCTORAL HALLMARKS OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

In Walden’s scholar-practitioner model, a research problem shows promise of contributing meaningfully to the field ONLY if the answer to ALL of the following questions is “yes.”

Yes

1. JUSTIFIED?

Is there evidence that this problem is significant to the professional field?

There must be relevant statistics (expressing an unjust inequality, financial impact, lost efficiency, etc.), documentable discrepancies (e.g., two models that are difficult to reconcile), and/or other scholarly facts that point to the significance and urgency of the problem. The problem must be an authentic “puzzle” that needs solving, not merely a topic that the researcher finds interesting.

2. GROUNDED IN THE LITERATURE?

Can the problem be framed in a way that will enable the researcher to either build upon or counter the previously published findings on the topic?

For most fields, this involves articulating the problem within the context of a theoretical or conceptual framework. Although there are multiple ways to ground a study in the scientific literature, the essential requirement is that the problem is framed in such a way that the new findings will have implications for the previous findings.

3. ORIGINAL?

For research doctorates (Ph.D.):

Does the problem reflect a meaningful gap in the research literature?

For the professional doctorates (Ed.D. and D.B.A.):

Does the problem describe a meaningful gap in practice?

4. AMENABLE TO SCIENTIFIC STUDY?

Can a scholarly, systematic method of inquiry be applied to address the problem?

The framing of the problem should not reveal bias or present a foregone conclusion. Even if the researcher has a strong opinion on the expected findings, scholarly objectivity must be maximized by framing the problem in the context of a systematic inquiry that permits multiple possible conclusions.

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Social Psychology Essay homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Social Psychology Essay homework help

925 North Spurgeon Street, Santa Ana, CA 92701

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12/14

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Tracking Your Academic Activities Verifying an accurate course completion time is essential for accreditation. To meet both accreditation requirements and award academic credit, educational institutions must document the total number of hours students spend completing designated academic activities related to their coursework.

The total hours are then translated into academic credit based on a prescribed method of measuring educational attainment known as the Carnegie Unit. 90 hours of student preparation time and 45 hours of student engagement time are required for a 3 credit hour course.

Using the attached form as an example, keep track of the time you spend on each lesson, pre-test, self-test, unit test, writing assignment, reading assignment, outside reading, final examination, etc. You will not be required to turn in the worksheet; however, at the end of the course you will receive a Student Course Survey and the final question will ask how long it took you to complete the course. Your assistance in completing this requirement and providing the university with this valuable data is greatly appreciated.

As you fill out the worksheet, please keep in mind that your Academic Engagement Activities should total approximately 45 hours. Some examples of this type of activity may include:

Lesson Review Exercises

Key Term Reviews

Analysis

Study Guide Review

Writing Assignments

Review Grading Rubric

Unit Examinations

Proctored Final Examination

Course Academic Online Discussions

Student/Instructor Interaction

Documents/Student Resources

As you fill out the Academic Preparation Activities, please keep in mind that these should total approximately 90 hours. Some samples of this type of activity may include:

Pre-Test

Reading Assignments

Key Term Reviews

Studying for Examinations

Writing Assignments

Review Grading Rubric

Study Lesson Review Exercises

Internet/Web Research

Reading Websites

Suggested Readings

Table of Contents

xxxiv

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii-xx

Unit One Chapter 1: Introduction to Sociological Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2: Perspectives in Sociological Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Chapter 3: Studying People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Unit 1 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Unit 1 Examination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Unit 1 Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Unit Two

Chapter 4: The Social Psychology of Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 5: Self and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 6: Socialization Over the Life Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Unit 2 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Unit 2 Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Unit 2 Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Unit Three

Chapter 7: The Social Psychology of Deviance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Chapter 8: Mental Health and Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Chapter 9: Attitudes, Values and Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Unit 3 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Unit 3 Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Unit 3 Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Unit Four Chapter 10: The Sociology of Sentiment and Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Chapter 11: Collective Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Unit 4 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Unit 4 Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Unit 4 Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Final Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Final Exam Scheduling Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter One Introduction to Sociological Social Psychology

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define social psychology.

2. Differentiate between macrosociology and microsociology.

3. Compare and contrast sociologists and psychologists’ approach to social psychology.

4. Identify the three major perspectives in sociological social psychology.

• Read pages 1-24 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter is designed to give students an understanding of how sociologists study social psychology and its role in the larger field of sociology. Students will gain an understanding of the distinction between psychology and sociology and be able to explain the major sociological social psychology perspectives.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Breaching experiments:

Culture:

Ethnomethodology:

Macrosociology:

Organizations:

Psychology:

Roles:

Social norms:

Social psychology:

Sociological imagination:

Symbolic interactionism:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Sociology is the study of society. Sociologists look at society from both the macro and the micro level of analysis. Both psychological and sociological social psychologists study the social contexts of human thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Sociologists, however, also apply the perspectives and methods of the field of sociology to the study of social psychology.

Sociology was first defined in 1838 by French social philosopher, August Comte, who applied the principles of the scientific method to society. Some of the founders of sociological social psychology include George Herbert Mead, W.E.B. Dubois, William Thomas, Charles Horton Cooley and George Simmel. Three major perspectives in sociological social psychology include symbolic interactionism, social structure and personality and group processes.

Sociologists use a tool kit consisting of methods and concepts for studying the role of society in social psychological processes. Their tools include such concepts as statuses, roles, norms and values, culture and social institutions—which they apply to the study of human thoughts—feelings and behavior.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. How can macrosociological perspectives be used to study individual, micro-level interactions?

a. Macrosociological conditions may cause some individual-level conditions to exist in the first place. b. Differences in our macrosociological conditions may change the way we react to life events. c. Life events that affect us the most are often caused by societal conditions. d. All of the above.

2. Janna wanted to study the effects of population size on individuals’ decision to commit suicide. Which social psychological perspective is she most likely to use?

a. psychology b. sociology c. sociological social psychology d. psychological social psychology

3. Which macrosociological perspective views society as social systems composed of parts that serve to keep the system working properly?

a. conflict perspective b. symbolic interactionism c. behavioralism d. structural functionalism

4. Joe started noticing that kids from the upper classes tend to get accepted at better colleges than the kids from the middle and lower classes. His analysis probably comes from which macrosociological perspective?

a. conflict perspective b. symbolic interactionism c. behavioralism d. structural functionalism

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

5. Sociological social psychology is different from psychological social psychology because:

a. it focuses on the effects of societal conditions on individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behavior. b. it incorporates sociological perspectives and theories to explain individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behavior. c. it is a subfield of sociology, not psychology. d. All of the above.

6. Social psychology is the systematic study of individual thoughts, feelings and behavior in a social context. Which of the following social contexts are more likely to be studied by sociologists than psychologists?

a. small groups b. family interactions c. ethnic groups d. friendship groups

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Breaching experiments: Experiments that violate the established social order to assess how people construct social reality.

Culture: A society’s set of unique patterns of behavior and beliefs.

Ethnomethodology: A method of studying society through observation of people’s typical day-to-day interactions.

Macrosociology: The study of large-scale social processes.

Organizations: Groups that share a common purpose and contain a formal set of rules and authority structure.

Psychology: The study of human thought processes and behaviors.

Roles: A set of expectations about how to behave in a group.

Social norms: The rules that regulate our behavior in relationships.

Social psychology: The systematic study of people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior in social contexts.

Sociological imagination: The ability to see personal lives in the context of the larger society— its history, culture and social structure.

Symbolic interactionism: A perspective within sociological social psychology that emphasizes the study of how people negotiate the meaning of social life during their interactions with other people.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. d

2. c

3. d

4. a

5. d

6. c

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Two Perspectives in Sociological Social Psychology

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish the major principles of the symbolic interaction perspective.

2. Define what it means to “construct” the world around us.

3. Characterize the social structure and personality perspective.

4. Identify key elements of the group processes perspective.

5. Consider elements of group structure.

• Read pages 25-53 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter provides an extensive review of three major perspectives in sociological social psychology. Students will learn about the history, theoretical and empirical importance of the three perspectives. The chapter begins with an overview of the history and tenets of symbolic interactionism. This is followed by a review of the two major schools of symbolic interactionism.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Agency:

Collective behavior:

Components principle:

Frame analysis:

Legitimacy:

Proximity principle:

Psychology principle:

Reference groups:

Social scripts:

Thomas theorem:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

There are three broad perspectives in sociological social psychology: symbolic interactionism, social structure and personality and group processes.

Symbolic interactionism is the study of how people negotiate meaning during their interactions with others. Within this approach, two schools of symbolic interactionism exists: the Chicago school and the Iowa and Indiana schools.

The social structure and personality perspective emphasizes how social structure affects individuals within a society. Structural forces include status, roles and social networks.

The group processes perspective focuses on interactions that occur within groups, characteristics of groups and relationships among groups. Processes studied by those in the group processes perspective include power, status, justice and legitimacy.

A group’s behavior is influenced by structural conditions including its size and its function. Group research may focus on structure or on other aspects of group processes, such as the relationship between groups and the behavior of larger groups of people called collective behavior.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Which social theorists are most associated with the concept of the social construction of reality?

a. Marx and Engels b. Thomas and Thomas c. Berger and Luckmann d. Blumer and Mead

2. A local fraternity developed a special hand signal whenever they see each other on the university quad. In symbolic interactionist terms, this signal has become a ______________ for this group.

a. meaningful exchange b. important source of pride c. language d. symbol

3. Terence started to believe that a friend at work is really a spy from another company, leading him to avoid interactions with that person as much as possible. Ultimately, he treats all interactions with her as suspect, making him reluctant to share any work-related information with her. Which of the following best explains Terence’s behavior?

a. components principle of the social structure and personality perspective b. the Thomas theorem c. the peter principle d. the group processes concept of legitimacy

4. Who coined the expression “symbolic interaction”?

a. Emile Durkheim b. Herbert Blumer c. August Comte d. George Herbert Mead

5. Professor Swanson is studying the meaning of “goodness” using a survey of public attitudes toward the topic. Which school of symbolic interaction is she most likely using in her research?

a. the Chicago school b. the Indiana/Iowa school c. the Swanson school d. the sociological social psychology school

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Socioeconomic status (social class), race or ethnicity, gender, age and sexuality all relate to which principle of the social structure and personality perspective?

a. components principle b. proximity principle c. psychology principle d. peter principle

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Agency: The ability to act and think independent of the constraints imposed by social conditions.

Collective behavior: The action or behavior of people in groups or crowds.

Components principle: Within the social structure and personality perspective, the ability to identify the elements or components of society most likely to affect a given attitude or behavior.

Frame analysis: The process by which individuals transform the meaning of a situation using basic cognitive structures provided by society.

Legitimacy: The perception that a social arrangement or position is the way that things should be.

Proximity principle: Element of the social structure and personality perspective referring to how people are affected by social structure through their immediate social environments.

Psychology principle: Element of the social structure and personality perspective referring to how individuals internalize proximal experiences.

Reference groups: People we look to as a source of standards and identity.

Social scripts: The appropriate thoughts, feelings and behaviors that should be displayed in a particular social frame.

Thomas theorem: Theorem stating that when people define situations as real, the consequences of those situations become real.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. c

2. d

3. b

4. b

5. b

6. a

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Three Studying People

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Become acquainted with the vocabulary of social science research.

2. Differentiate qualitative sociology from quantitative sociology.

3. Determine major forms of qualitative and quantitative research.

4. Assess how social scientists begin to develop a research project.

• Read pages 54-82 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of the techniques sociological social psychologists use to study people, emphasizing theoretical differences on the appropriate means of obtaining social-psychological data.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Categorical variables:

Ethnography:

Focus groups:

Indices:

Interval variables:

Ordinal variables:

Population:

Qualitative research methods:

Reliability:

Snowball sample:

Validity:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Several concepts apply to almost any research project. Researchers regularly use terms such as theory, research questions or hypotheses and variables to describe ways of studying people.

Researchers employ qualitative and quantitative techniques to study human subjects. Qualitative research methods include field research and in-depth interviews. Quantitative methods include survey research and experiments.

The steps in developing most research projects include assessing the theory and literature of the research topic, developing research questions or specific hypotheses, choosing the appropriate research methods, conducting data analysis and reporting the results.

Although there is no rule about whether a particular theory should or should not use quantitative or qualitative methods to study people, symbolic interactionists have traditionally relied more on qualitative methods. Many researchers try to employ multiple methods of studying a particular phenomenon.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. How are social theories and hypotheses related to one another?

a. Theories include general statements about social relationships while hypotheses are more specific statements about how variables will relate to one another. b. Theories are an extension of hypotheses. c. Theories are used to develop hypotheses. d. both a and c

2. Samantha started a research project predicting that men would be more supportive of using military forces to go to war than women. In this case, attitudes toward going to war is what kind of variable?

a. index b. scale c. independent variable d. dependent variable

3. In preparing for a survey of country club members, Donella asked the manager of the club for a list of members. This list refers to a _______________.

a. random sample b. probability sample c. sample list d. sampling frame

4. Which of the following types of samples is considered most representative of any given population?

a. random sample b. convenience sample c. snowball sample d. both b and c

5. An instructor asks you to develop a study of the homeless that will provide a great deal of depth into what it is like to be homeless. Given this mandate, which of the following methods would most likely give the information you need for such a project?

a. ethnography b. focus group c. survey d. experiment

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. A sample in which any available person is included in the study is known as a ____________ sample.

a. true b. convenience c. odd d. real time

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Categorical variables: Measures for which the possible responses have no particular order.

Ethnography: A form of field research that includes a descriptive analysis of a group or organization.

Focus groups: Semistructured interviews with small groups of people.

Indices: A series of related questions designed to measure a concept such as mastery.

Interval variables: A type of variable in which the difference between any two adjacent values is the same.

Ordinal variables: Variables for which response categories are ordered but the distances between adjacent categories are not necessarily equal.

Population: The larger group of people about whom a researcher seeks to draw conclusions.

Qualitative research methods: In-depth, semi-structured modes of observation or interviewing of subjects.

Reliability: When a study yields the same results using the same techniques and data.

Snowball sample: Samples in which informants provide contact information about other people who share some of the characteristics necessary for a study.

Validity: How valid or accurate the findings of the study are.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. d

2. a

3. d

4. a

5. a

6. b

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 1 Examination Instructions

The Unit Examination

The unit examination contains 25 multiple choice questions, as well as a writing assignment.

Your grade on the examination will be determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct B = 80% – 89% correct C = 70% – 79% correct D = 60% – 69% correct F = 59% and below correct

4 grade points 3 grade points 2 grade points 1 grade point 0 grade points

Completing Unit One Examination

Before beginning your examination, we recommend that you thoroughly review the textbook chapters and other materials covered in each unit and follow the suggestions in the mastering the course content section of the syllabus.

This unit examination consists of objective test questions as well as a comprehensive writing assignment selected to reflect the learning objectives identified in each chapter covered so far in your textbook.

Additional detailed information on completing the examination, writing standards and how to submit your completed examination may be found in the syllabus for this course.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Which early sociologists emphasized the role of society in the development of the self?

a. George Herbert Mead b. Karl Marx c. Georg Simmer d. Herbert Blumer

2. Which sociological social psychology perspective emphasizes the role of meaning and the social construction of meaning in the study of social psychology?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functionalism

3. Which sociological social psychology perspective is likely to emphasize the importance of roles and statuses in the study of social psychology?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functionalism

4. Which sociological social psychology perspective is likely to emphasize the importance of interactions within groups?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functionalism

5. The sociological imagination is associated with which social theorists?

a. Emile Durkheim b. Max Weber c. C. Wright Mills d. Auguste Comte

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. The expectation to look someone in the eye when talking with them refers to a _______________.

a. norm b. role c. value d. belief

7. Derek’s job as a supervisor refers to his relative _______________ in the company while the expectations for how to behave on the job refers to his ________________.

a. role; status b. job; role c. status; role d. status; job

8. Which institution regulates sexual relations and child-rearing in society?

a. economy and work b. politics c. family d. religion

9. Which institution refers to the rituals and beliefs regarding sacred things?

a. economy and work b. politics c. family d. religion

10. Franklin did not think much about how the economy or society affects his life until he lost his job. Franklin’s internal processesing of his job loss best represents which principle from the social structure and personality perspective?

a. components principle b. psychology principle c. propinquity principle d. proximity principle

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

11. After Donna cheated on her most recent exam, she starts to feel a sense of guilt, making her reconsider whether she wants to do it again. Donna’s feelings of guilt can be considered a ______________, according to the social structure and personality perspective, leading her to rethink her future behaviors.

a. social more b. social norm c. social force d. social fear

12. Which of the following is considered a major dimension of group processes?

a. power b. justice c. legitimacy d. All of the above.

13. Janelle wants to study how and why some people are able to tell other people what to do while others can not. What aspect of group processes is she studying?

a. power b. status c. justice d. legitimacy

14. What social psychologist is most associated with the concepts of dyads and triads?

a. Emile Durkheim b. August Comte c. Herbert Blumer d. Georg Simmel

15. The difference between dyads and triads is important because:

a. moving from a dyad to a triad exponentially increases the number of relationships available in an interaction. b. moving from a dyad to a triad exponentially decreases the amount of intimacy possible in a group. c. moving from a dyad to a triad exponentially decreases the number of relationships available in an interaction. d. both a and b

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

16. A group of friends getting together for dinner represents a ______________ group while a group of people at your work represents a _____________ group.

a. reference; primary b. primary; reference c. primary; secondary d. secondary; reference

17. Bob goes to the beach on a hot summer day and is surprised when he observes a group of people dressed in formal wear sitting in beach chairs amongst sunbathers. Bob was surprised because the ______________ did not meet his expectations for that situation.

a. situation b. social scripts c. frame d. All of the above.

18. ____________ require the researcher to weigh individual items differently.

a. Indices b. Scales c. both a and b d. None of the above.

19. Which of the following methods is MOST likely to show causation?

a. ethnography b. focus group c. survey d. experiment

20. An instructor developed a study to determine ways of producing more participation in his classes. In one class she provided free donuts everyday of class while in another she gave them nothing. She had her assistant takes notes on the number of comments and questions students made in each class. Which of these classes represent the control group?

a. the class not given the donuts b. the class given the donuts c. other classes that are not part of the experiment d. both classes would be considered the control group

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

21. ____________ developed the field of operant conditioning; much of his work relied on experiments using rats and pigeons.

a. Carl Jung b. B.F. Skinner c. Sigmund Freud d. Joseph Berger

22. At what step in the research process does the researcher employ the library and other resources and conduct a literature review?

a. step 1 b. step 2 c. step 3 d. step 4

23. At what step in the research process does the researcher actually go out and collect data?

a. step 1 b. step 2 c. step 3 d. step 4

24. Research conducted by interviews, participant observations and ethnographies is referred to as what kind of research?

a. quantitative b. qualitative c. breeching d. experimental

25. Social scientists must always be concerned with _______________ and _______________ to accurately capture the phenomena in question.

a. truth and reliability b. reliability and validity c. truth and validity d. probability and validity

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Writing Assignment for Unit One

• Include your name, student number, course number, course title and unit number on each page of your writing assignment (this is for your protection in case your materials become separated).

• Begin each writing assignment by identifying the question number you are answering followed by the actual question itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions (i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

• Responses must be submitted as a MS Word Document only, typed double-spaced, using a standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type size.

Word count is NOT one of the criteria that is used in assigning points to writing assignments. However, students who are successful in earning the maximum number of points tend to submit writing assignments that fall in the following ranges:

Undergraduate courses: 350 – 500 words or 1 – 2 pages. Graduate courses: 500 – 750 words or 2 – 3 pages. Doctoral courses: 750 – 1000 words or 4 – 5 pages.

Plagiarism

Please answer ONE of the following:

1. Think about the concept of poverty. How would a macro-level sociologist study this concept differently than a micro-level sociologist?

2. Discuss how symbolic interactionists define the concept of society. What role do symbols and language play in the development of society?

3. Discuss the ways that group structures can impact interaction in groups. Specifically, examine how group size (i.e., dyads and triads) and types of groups (e.g., primary groups) impact interactions between people.

You Can Do It

PSY 228 Social Psychology

You have just completed Unit 1 of this course.

You are off to a great start!

Keep up the good work!

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Four The Social Psychology of Stratification

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Interpret how people construct inequality in society.

2. Determine how structure is linked to interactions.

3. Evaluate how stratification develops in group interaction.

4. Judge how inequalities from society-at-large get reproduced in groups.

• Read pages 84-120 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

One of the major ways that sociological social psychology is different from its counterpart in psychology is its greater emphasis on the role of stratification in social psychological processes. There are several ways in which stratification affects our lives and relationships. Symbolic interactionists sometimes address how we create and maintain definitions of different classes of people. Social structure and personality scholars emphasize how structural conditions, often related to work, education, or family settings affect people. Those in the group processes perspective examine how stratification systems from the larger society become reproduced in groups. We will use each of these perspectives to examine how stratification processes occur in our day-to-day lives.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Borderwork:

Direct exchanges:

Doing difference:

Feedback loop:

Intersectionality:

Routinization:

Social capital:

Social exchange theory:

Social stratification:

Substantive complexity:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Three ways that interactionist researchers focus on stratification processes include examining how social structure shapes who we interact with, accounting for inequalities in the content of interactions, acknowledging how people with certain status characteristics have more power in terms of role taking and examining people’s power to define situations and define themselves.

The Wisconsin Model of Status Attainment traces the relationships among individual’s class position, their abilities and their long-term occupational outcomes.

The effect of networking among individuals from different groups creates a variety of outcomes for those involved, depending on the status of the individuals in a group as well as the status of the group itself.

Values serve as a guide for making decisions about the future, ultimately affecting the types of jobs we attain and class position we have in life, producing a feedback loop between our personality and social positions.

Group processes contribute to our understanding of structural developments by studying the exchanges among individuals in groups. Exchange processes lend themselves to the development of status structures because people bring different types and quantities of resources into the process. People who contribute more to a group or have more resources generally achieve a higher status in groups.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Shirley Brice Heath’s research on the socialization of status and race among Whites and Blacks in the rural-Piedmont Carolinas is important because:

a. it shows how social class influences how we interact with other people. b. it shows how historical and social conditions can affect our day-to-day interactions. c. it shows that White people have an advantage over African-Americans in getting into good colleges. d. both a and b

2. Which perspective in sociological social psychology is more likely to examine the effects of stratification in day-to-day exchanges between people?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functionalism

3. Which of the following is the best example of “borderwork”?

a. a group of teenage boys smoking cigarettes in a high-school parking lot b. a group of girls at a slumber party c. a group of boys and girls playing “kiss and chase” d. a group of boys and girls being lectured to about poor behavior

4. Elijah Anderson’s study of inner city norms and values show that:

a. inner city residents tend to be submissive in the face of their poverty. b. inner city residents are taught to develop a toughness to deal with challenges of poverty and poor living conditions. c. most inner city residents accept most traditional norms from the larger culture. d. both b and c

5. An intersectional approach is essential to understanding the dynamics of stratification because it allows us to the look at the multitude of ways in which our statuses and positions affect our experience.

a. True b. False

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. According to the Wisconsin Model of Status Attainment, how does our social background influence our occupational status in life?

a. It shows that our social background influences with whom we spend time. b. It shows that our social background influences our mental abilities. c. It shows that our social background affects our educational levels. d. All of the above.

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Borderwork: The creation of social and physical boundaries between boys and girls.

Direct exchanges: Exchanges between two people.

Doing difference: Any way in which inequality in any form (race, class or gender) is perpetuated during our interactions as people are held accountable to the social categories in which they are a part.

Feedback loop: A process in which our class position influences the development of values that, in turn, influences the type of job we seek.

Intersectionality: The idea that race, gender and class statuses are not separate but interlocking systems of inequality.

Routinization: Part of Kohn and Schooler’s model of status attainment referring to the level of repetitiveness found on the job.

Social capital: Trust and support found in relationships with other people.

Social exchange theory: Theory based on the premise that individuals enter into relationships that provide some benefit to them and end or leave relationships that do not provide some sort of reward.

Social stratification: The ways in which individuals or groups are ranked in society.

Substantive complexity: Part of Kohn and Schooler’s model of status attainment referring to how complicated the actual work is on the job.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. d

2. a

3. c

4. d

5. a

6. d

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Five Self and Identity

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the components of the self.

2. Determine interactionist theories of the self and identity.

3. Characterize three dimensions of the self-concept.

4. Analyze what we know from research on the self-concept.

5. Interpret how group processes affect identity.

• Read pages 121-149 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter reviews the different ways that sociologists study the meaning of the concepts of self and identity and the structural and group conditions that impact the self. It will address the components of the self; interactionist theories of the self and identity; three dimensions of self- concept; and how group processes affect identity.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Affect-control theory:

Backstage:

Dramaturgical sociology:

Emotional arousal:

Identity:

Mastery:

Mattering:

Me:

Personal characteristics:

Psychological centrality:

Self:

Self-enhancement:

Self-esteem:

Self-indication:

Verbal persuasion:

Vicarious experience:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

From a symbolic interactionist perspective, the self is a process in which we construct a sense of who we are. We use symbols and language to communicate with other people, but we also use language to think internally. The self includes a dialogue between the “I” and the “Me”.

Identity includes our social categories and personal characteristics. Identity theory examines how social conditions affect the salience of identities and thus our behavior. Affect-control theory incorporates emotions in identity processes.

The self-concept refers to all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves as an object, often studied in the form of identities, self-esteem, mattering and mastery. Class, race, and gender are important social statuses that influence our self-development over time. Social identity theory argues that people define and evaluate themselves in terms of the groups they belong to, including one’s race and gender.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. What part of the self-concept is mastery?

a. the self b. self-identities c. self-evaluations d. self indication

2. Debating what other people are thinking about you in a public setting is best represented by what term?

a. self-concept b.self-identities c. self-evaluations d. self indication

3. According to Mead, which aspect of our self is out in public, constantly processing new information related to the self?

a. the “I” b. the “Me” c. self-concept d. self indication

4. Which of the following is NOT an element of identity?

a. social categories b. role identities c. personal characteristics d. self attitudes

5. Being a Canadian applies to which aspect of identity?

a. social categories b. role identities c. personal characteristics d. self attitudes

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Identity theory comes from which social-psychological perspective?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functional

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Affect-control theory: The theory that incorporates elements of symbolic interactionism and identity theory to explain the role of emotion in identity processes.

Backstage: Part of dramaturgical sociology referring to the region where we relax our impression management efforts.

Dramaturgical sociology: The study of how we present ourselves, playing roles and managing impressions during interactions with other people.

Emotional arousal: Inferences about our abilities based on our emotional states that we use to build our sense of mastery.

I: The part of the self that is active, engaging in interactions with others.

Identity: Our internalized, stable sense of who we are.

Mastery: Our perceptions of our ability to control things important to us.

Mattering: Our sense that we are important to other people in the world.

Me: The part of the self that includes an organized set of attitudes toward the self.

Personal characteristics: Anything we use to describe our individual nature.

Psychological centrality: Our ability to shift aspects of the self to become more or less important to our overall self-concept.

Self: A process in which we construct a sense of who we are through interaction with others.

Self-enhancement: In social identity theory, the process through which we make comparisons that favor our own groups.

Self-esteem: The positive or negative evaluation of our self as an object.

Self-indication: The use of symbols and language to communicate internally.

Verbal persuasion: Information from others about our abilities used to derive mastery.

Vicarious experience: A way of building mastery by seeing other people perform tasks; it shows us that the task is accomplishable.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. c

2. d

3. a

4. d

5. a

6. a

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Six Socialization Over the Lifer Course

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Critique how society influences the social construction of the self.

2. Chart the stages involved in developing the self.

3. Name the four elements of life-course sociology.

4. Consider agents of socialization and how they affect our lives.

5. Assess how group processes researchers study socialization.

• Read pages 150-187 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The goal of this chapter is to define socialization and the life course and the major theories and research associated with these ideas.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Agency:

Birth cohort:

Contextual dissonance:

Gender socialization:

Idiocultures:

Life course:

Life events:

Linked lives:

Looking-glass self:

Pygmalion effect:

Socialization:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Sociologists study socialization processes at every stage of development from childhood to late adulthood. The self develops through a symbolic process. An essential aspect of self-development is the ability to take the role of the other.

The sociology of childhood focuses on how children are active participants in creating culture. Life-course sociology is based on the notion that humans adapt to different situations based on their social and historical location, relative to different events and cultural “moments.” Four major themes in life-course sociology include historical context, timing, linked lives and agency.

Sociologists view agents of socialization as mediators of the larger society rather than direct causes of socialization. The family is considered the primary agent of socialization because children are raised from infancy with parents and often siblings. Schools and peers are two other important agents of socialization.

The group processes perspective often examines the role of socialization after it has occurred, reviewing, for instance, how expectations about gender or race affect group interactions.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Sammy is using dolls to represent people in a doll house. Based on Mead’s theory of child development, at what stage of development is she?

a. preparatory stage b. play stage c. game stage d. toy stage

2. A little boy playing in a baseball team is probably in which stage of development using Mead’s typology?

a. preparatory stage b. play stage c. game stage d. toy stage

3. Which social psychologist is associated with the looking-glass self?

a. George Herbert Mead b. Michel Foucault c. Georg Simmel d. Charles Horton Cooley

4. Studies have shown that factors such as parenting style, resources and status can dramatically affect the outcomes of children of divorced parents.

a. True b. False

5. Studies have found that father’s household labor participation has little effect on their son’s future household labor sharing.

a. True b. False

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Several studies have shown that there is a correlation between watching violent television and aggressive behavior.

a. True b. False

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Agency: An aspect of life-course sociology referring to our ability to improvise roles, make decisions and control our destiny.

Birth cohort: A group of people born around the same time period.

Contextual dissonance: A feeling that minority members of a group have because they are different from the majority members.

Gender socialization: Learning expectations about how to behave related to one’s gender.

Idiocultures: A system of knowledge, beliefs, behaviors and customs shared by an interacting group to which members refer and employ as a basis of further interaction.

Life course: The process of change from infancy to late adulthood resulting from personal and societal events and from transitions into and out of social roles.

Life events: Event that can cause significant changes in the course of our lives.

Linked lives: An aspect of life-course sociology referring to our relationships with other people.

Looking-glass self: How the self relies on imagined responses of others in its development.

Pygmalion effect: When children develop according to expectations of a group or society.

Socialization: The ways in which individuals attempt to align their own thoughts, feelings, and behavior to fit into a group or society.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. b

2. c

3. d

4. a

5. b

6. a

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 2 Examination Instructions

The Unit Examination

The unit examination contains 25 multiple choice questions, as well as a writing assignment.

Your grade on the examination will be determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct B = 80% – 89% correct C = 70% – 79% correct D = 60% – 69% correct F = 59% and below correct

4 grade points 3 grade points 2 grade points 1 grade point 0 grade points

Completing Unit Two Examination

Additional detailed information on completing the examination, writing standards and how to submit your completed examination may be found in the syllabus for this course.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. How does Kohn and Schooler’s model of status attainment link economic status, job characteristics and personality?

a. People with lower economic status tend to find work in jobs that have more supervision. b. People with lower economic status tend to find work in jobs that require less intellectual flexibility. c. People with less intellectual flexibility tend to seek jobs that are routinized. d. All of the above.

2. Bradley, a student at Big U, regularly seeks advice from his professor and mentor, Janet. According to exchange theory, what kind of exchange is most likely motivating Janet to stay in this relationship?

a. a direct exchange b. a reciprocal exchange c. a generalized exchange d. All of the above.

3. What was being exchanged among crew members and the captain in George Homan’s research about exchange processes on small warships?

a. support b. caring c. listening d. All of the above.

4. Who gets the most status in groups based on Bales’ research in social exchanges in small groups?

a. Those who are perceived as the best managers. b. Those who are perceived as being the smartest. c. Those who contribute the most to the group. d. Those who listen and care the most for the other members.

5. Which of the following best reflects a task group used to study status processes in groups?

a. A group of students at a class lecture. b. A group of people waiting in line to pay at a store. c. A group of citizens meeting to resolve a local problem. d. All of the above.

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Why are weak ties so important for finding work?

a. People with whom we have weak ties live and work in circles outside our own. b. People with whom we have weak ties tend to have better jobs. c. People with whom we have weak ties aren’t biased against us in the job market. d. People with whom we have weak ties provide training in getting better jobs.

7. According to status characteristics theory, gender, race and education levels are examples of _______________.

a. diffuse status characteristics b. specific status characteristics c. roles d. class positions

8. According to status characteristics theory, skill at playing basketball would be considered _______________.

a. diffuse status characteristics b. specific status characteristics c. roles d. class positions

9. People are ______________ aware of the status hierarchies that develop in task-oriented groups.

a. almost always b. usually not c. always d. None of the above.

10. Which theorist is most associated with impression management?

a. Auguste Comte b. Emile Durkheim c. Herbert Blumer d. Erving Goffman

11. According to dramaturgical sociology, what area of identity is associated with hanging out with friends while watching television?

a. front stage b. back stage c. performance stage d. informal groups

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

12. A first date would most likely be associated with what area of identity?

a. front stage b. back stage c. performance stage d. informal groups

13. Spencer Cahill’s research on “bathroom behavior” clearly showed that _______________.

a. people act very differently in bathrooms than other areas of life b. serve as “self-service” repair shops c. people use bathrooms to “retire” from their front stage presentations d. All of the above.

14. Which of the following has the strongest impact on self-esteem?

a. social comparisons b. reflected appraisals c. psychological centrality d. self-perceptions

15. _____________ are observations of our behavior and its consequences.

a. Reflected appraisals b. Self-perceptions c. Social comparisons d. Psychological centrality

16. What is the best way to build a child’s sense of mastery or efficacy?

a. personal accomplishments b. vicarious experience c. verbal persuasion d. emotional arousal

17. Rosenberg’s early research on mattering found it positively related to _______________ and negatively related to ________________.

a. self-esteem; alcoholism b. depression; self-esteem c. self-esteem; depression d. mastery; depression

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

18. Given research and theory in life-course sociology, which of the following groups are most likely to be negatively affected by Hurricane Katrina?

a. a poor White family who survived the storm together b. a poor African-American family who survived the storm together c. a middle-class White man who lost his income and had no access to family or friends during the event d. a middle-class African-American family who survived the storm together

19. Tony and Rose both received word that they were called up for active duty in the military out of the reserve component of the forces. Tony is several years older with a wife and child while Rose is just finishing college. Which dimension of life course sociology best explains why Tony is more likely to be affected by the mobilization than Rose?

a. historical context b. linked lives c. social timing d. agency

20. Which of the following is NOT considered a primary agent of socialization?

a. family b. peers c. schools d. government

21. Elder’s study of the Great Depression generally showed that ______________.

a. all children were negatively affected by growing up in the Great Depression b. only children growing up in poverty were affected by the Great Depression c. the Great Depression had the strongest impact on children’s lives by changing family roles d. both b and c

22. Kohn’s work on class socialization generally showed that middle-class families tend to stress ______________ while working-class families emphasize _______________ in raising their children.

a. autonomy; conformity b. conformity; freedom c. freedom; independence d. conformity; autonomy

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

23. Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study of classroom interaction is important because:

a. it showed that children are taught to be racist in the classroom. b. it showed that IQ scores could be manipulated based on a group prejudice. c. it showed that children’s IQ scores were not linked to race at all. d. it showed that racist beliefs and values exist in every classroom.

24. Which of the following groups are most prevalent in American schools based on Adler and Adler’s research on peer culture?

a. the popular click b. the wannabes c. middle friendship circles d. social isolates

25. Group processes researcher is important to the study of socialization in what way?

a. It shows the importance of peer-group interactions in socialization processes. b. It shows the importance of family interactions. c. It shows the importance of the media. d. It emphasizes the impact of socialization in group settings.

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Writing Assignment for Unit Two

• Responses must be submitted as a MS Word Document only, typed double-spaced, using a standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type size.

Undergraduate courses: 350 – 500 words or 1 – 2 pages. Graduate courses: 500 – 750 words or 2 – 3 pages. Doctoral courses: 750 – 1000 words or 4 – 5 pages.

Plagiarism

Please answer ONE of the following:

• Include your name, student number, course number, course title and unit number on each page of your writing assignment (this is for your protection in case your materials become separated).

• Begin each writing assignment by identifying the question number you are answering followed by the actual question itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions (i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

1. Describe the concept of “doing gender.” Apply this process to other statuses in society (e.g., race, ethnicity or sexuality).

2. Review the three ways that interactionists view the development and maintenance of stratification in society.

3. Discuss the similarities and differences between identity theory and social identity theory.

You Can Do It

PSY 228 Social Psychology

With Unit 2 complete, you are half way through the course.

Take a break and reward yourself

for a job well done!

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Seven The Social Psychology of Deviance

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Analyze how we define what is normal and what is deviant.

2. Determine how the construction of deviant labels contribute to the development of deviant lifestyles.

3. Judge how structural conditions influence individuals’ decisions to commit deviant acts.

4. Consider how group relationships influence the development of deviance and perceptions of deviance.

• Read pages 190-220 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter examines major sociological concepts and theories associated with the concept of deviance.

Interactionists generally view deviance as a normal part of the symbolic interaction process. Structural and group-centered views of deviance tend to focus on the social conditions that increase the likelihood of breaking laws. These views come from the larger social science specialty of criminology. This chapter emphasizes the broader sense of deviance in everyday life, before reviewing traditional theories and research on criminal forms of deviance.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Anomie:

Attachment:

Belief:

Covering:

Deviance:

Indexicality:

Labeling theory:

Reflexivity:

Social control theory:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

From a social-psychological perspective, deviance is a necessary part of the symbolic interaction process of negotiating social reality. Interactionism assumes that individuals decide to maintain (or break) social norms and standards during every interaction. Deviance allows for change in relationships and society as a whole.

Ethnomethodological perspectives of deviance emphasize how individuals construct and defend their views of social reality—the “real” boundaries of social life. People who can provide better accounts can convince others of those accounts, thus controlling the meaning of good and bad— deviance and conformity—in society.

Labeling theory is a major interactionist perspective of deviance. It is based on the notion that deviance is a consequence of a social process in which a negative characteristic becomes an element of an individual’s identity.

Strain and social control theories apply macrosociological perspectives of deviant behavior, arguing that deviance results from a larger set of societal conditions. Societal norms create limitations to how we can achieve legitimate goals in life. They also give goals that are unattainable for some people.

Groups provide both the motives and the knowledge necessary to commit crime. Differential association theory states that deviance is learned through interaction with others. This theory may help explain how and why people rationalize deviant behavior, especially in white-collar crimes committed by middle- and upper-class people.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Some individuals choose a life of deviance because of the satisfaction they derive from the act and deviant lifestyle.

a. True b. False

2. Which of the following statements best describes interactionist perspective(s) on deviance?

a. Deviance is relative to a given group of people or society. b. Deviance is relatively consistent across groups and society. c. What it means to be deviant is constructed through a process of indexicality and reflexivity. d. both a and c

3. According to labeling theory, a primary act of deviance does not always lead to a secondary act of deviance.

a. true b. false

4. According to Edwin Lemert, how is society involved in the deviance process?

a. during primary deviance, when society makes deviance symbolic in nature b. during secondary deviance, when society labels a person as deviant c. during the process of hiring police personnel to put away criminals d. during the process of committing the deviant act and accepting the deviant label

5. Which of the following is true of William Chambliss’ research on the Saints and the Roughnecks?

a. The Saints committed significantly less crime than the Roughnecks but were more likely to get caught. b. The Saints committed significantly less crime than the Roughnecks but only the Roughnecks got caught. c. The Saints committed somewhat higher levels of deviance as the Roughnecks but the Roughnecks were more likely to be caught than the Saints. d. The Roughnecks committed less crime and were rarely caught.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. How did Howard Becker’s research contribute to the understanding of deviance?

a. It showed the important role of deviant subcultures in the maintenance of deviant identities. b. It reinforced the relationship between primary and secondary deviance. c. He showed that even drug experiences can be influenced by social conditions. d. All of the above.

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Anomie: A sense of “normlessness” where there is little consensus about what is right and what is wrong.

Attachment: Component of social control theory referring to emotional bonds with other people in society.

Belief: Component of social control theory referring to people’s respect for law and order in society.

Covering: Keeping a known stigma from creating tensions in interaction by downplaying it.

Deviance: Any behavior that departs from accepted practices in a society or group.

Indexicality: The process by which individuals index thoughts, feelings and behaviors from their own perspective.

Labeling theory: Theory that argues deviance is a consequence of a social process in which a negative characteristic becomes an element of an individual’s identity.

Mores: Widely held values and beliefs in a society.

Reflexivity: The process by which individuals think about a behavior within its social context and give meaning to it.

Social control theory: Theory that deviance results when individuals’ bonds with conventional society are weakened in some way.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. a

2. d

3. a

4. b

5. c

6. d

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Eight Mental Health and Illness

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Determine what it means to be mentally healthy.

2. Interpret how the definition of mental illness is constructed.

3. List the structural conditions in society that contribute to distress.

4. Identify resources that can buffer stress.

5. Assess how mental health can influence our sense of identity and interactions with others.

• Read pages 221-246 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter examines mental health as an outcome of social life, influenced by social conditions and as a status characteristic that impacts our social interactions.

Once you read the sociological perspectives on mental health and illness, you may rethink what it means to have psychological problems.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Ambient hazards:

Chronic strains:

Colonization:

Intransigence:

Malaise:

Moderators:

Negative life events:

Sociology of mental health:

Total institutions:

Withdrawal:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The history of madness and civilization shows that the meaning and treatment of mental illness has changed dramatically over the centuries. In Europe, into the seventeenth century, mental illness was considered similar to other forms of deviance such as criminality.

Sociologists view many manifestations of mental illness to be the result of social conditions that tax individuals’ capacity to manage their lives. The stress process model helps us understand the relationship of negative life events and chronic strains to our mental health and well-being, focusing also on the resources we use to manage those stressors.

Social and economic characteristics are associated with different levels of distress, with social class status a critical factor in the stress process. Other important social characteristics that are implicated in the experience of stressors, the level of resources, and the expressions of distress include gender, age and race/ethnicity.

According to the group processes perspective, people set up different expectations for individuals’ performance depending on their status characteristics. Mental illness may be considered a diffuse status characteristic that influences members’ expectations of the mentally ill in a group setting, as well as the contributions made by those members.

Mental illness may be a form of stigma for individuals, an attribute that is deeply discrediting. Patients housed in mental institutions may try to cope in many different ways, including conversion, intransigence and forms of withdrawal and colonization.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Why was 1656 an important date in the history of mental illness according to Michel Foucault?

a. It is the year that psycho-tropic drugs started becoming widely available in Europe. b. It is the year that the “hospital general” opened, marking the beginning of the great confinement of mentally ill people. c. It is the first year in which psychoanalysis was used to treat mentally ill people. d. It was the first year that psychotropic drugs were introduced to the new world.

2. Which of the following forces are associated with putting aspects of social life, including mental illness, under the boundaries of medical professionals?

a. the power and authority of medical professionals b. activities of social movements and interest groups c. directed organization on professional activities d. All of the above are forces affecting medicalization.

3. Which social theorist argued that mental illness is a “myth?”

a. Peter Conrad b. Michel Foucault c. Thomas Szaz d. Herbert Blumer

4. Horwitz and Wakefield’s research focused on trends to increasingly diagnose individuals with clinical depression as the “loss of sadness” in society.

a. True b. False

5. What kind of stressors do college students typically report?

a. adjustment problems b. death of a loved one c. job loss d. fear of professors

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Which of the following is NOT a measurement of someone’s depression levels?

a. I did not feel like eating. b. I felt depressed. c. I felt everything was an effort. d. All of the above are measures of depression.

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Ambient hazards: Exposure to poor community conditions such as crime, poor living conditions and lack of services.

Chronic strains: Day-to-day role strains that may cause mental health problems over time by the accumulation of small amounts of stress.

Colonization: A way in which patients manage institutionalization by showing that their institution is a desirable place to live.

Intransigence: A way in which patients manage institutionalization by rebelling against the staff expectations.

Malaise: A psychological state of unhappiness associated with living conditions in rural or urban areas.

Moderators: Part of the stress process that includes the personal and social resources that affect the direction or strength of the relationship between a stressor and mental health.

Negative life events: Part of the stress process referring to any event deemed unwanted or stressful to an individual.

Sociology of mental health: The study of the social arrangements that affect mental illness and its consequences.

Total institutions: Places where individuals are isolated from the rest of society.

Withdrawal: A way of managing life in an institution involving the curtailing of interaction with others.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. b

2. d

3. c

4. a

5. a

6. d

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Nine Attitudes, Values, and Behaviors

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the nature of an attitude.

2. Evaluate how researchers study attitudes and behaviors.

3. Describe how people construct attitudes.

4. Analyze how attitudes toward other people form in group contexts.

• Read pages 247-276 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The goal of this chapter is to review the definition and measurement of attitudes and values and to examine research on how people use their time. Specific emphasis is given to prejudicial attitudes and behavior.

In this chapter, after discussing how attitudes are conceptualized, three areas of study within sociological social psychology will be emphasized. First, we will examine how attitudes are constructed from an interactionist perspective. Second, we will examine how attitudes vary by social location. Finally, we will apply the group processes perspective on attitudes, particularly related to attitudes toward other people in groups.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Altruism:

Attitude:

In-groups:

Opinion:

Prejudice:

Prosocial behavior:

Social distance:

Status construction theory:

Time deepening:

Values and beliefs:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Attitudes incorporate emotional, cognitive and behavioral dimensions—how we feel, think and act toward an object. Attitudes are measured in terms of their direction and strength, though people can also have nonattitudes toward objects. Time-use studies measure behaviors and can be characterized as either productive time, such as work and family care, or free time, including activities such as watching television or socializing.

The relationship between attitudes and behavior, on average, is typically small with an average correlation of 0.38. The weak relationship between attitudes and behavior—and of attitudes with other attitudes—may reflect poor measurement of attitudes or the complexities of attitudes themselves. Interactionist perspectives view attitudes like any other aspect of social life: they are constructed based on our interactions with other people. Our group memberships can have a large influence in our attitudes toward people in other groups based on the relative standing of those groups.

Some attitudes and opinions have been found to vary based on social statuses. Men and women regularly report different attitudes toward some social issues, as do African Americans and whites. Many attitudes toward major social issues have changed over the last half century, indicating that newer cohorts have different values than earlier generations.

Status construction theory posits that individuals develop status value through face-to-face interaction as well as from larger societal prejudices. Social identity theory emphasizes the role of in-groups and out-groups in our attitude development.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Your evaluation of a new political candidate may best be described as a(n) _____________ while your overall political ideology may better be described as a(n) _____________.

a. ideology; value b. value; attitude c. attitude; value d. both refer to attitudes

2. In a recent poll, Darnell told the interviewer that he does not care either way in the election. His response reflects what concept?

a. ideology b. values c. attitudes d. nonattitudes

3. Melissa had planned to play 18 holes of golf on the weekend but decided to cut it down to nine holes so that she could go to lunch with her boyfriend. What kind of behavior is she engaging in?

a. time deepening b. time management c. stress processing d. bureaucratic management

4. Americans have more productive time than free time.

a. true b. false

5. The relationship between our attitudes and behavior is typically ____________.

a. strong b. small c. 1 in average correlation d. 0 in average correlation

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Research generally shows that American attitudes on most major social issues have been pretty stable over the last 30 years.

a. true b. false

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Altruism: Refers to the motivation to help another person.

Attitude: A positive or negative evaluation of an object, a person, a group or an idea.

In-groups: Groups with whom we identify.

Opinion: The cognitive or “thinking” aspect of an attitude.

Prejudice: An attitude of dislike or active hostility toward a particular group in society.

Prosocial behavior: Includes any behavior that benefits another person.

Social distance: How close we feel to other people.

Status construction theory: Group processes theory that posits that individuals develop status value in face-to-face interactions with other people.

Time deepening: When people do more with the time that they have available to them.

Values and beliefs: Strongly held, relatively stable sets of attitudes.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. c

2. d

3. a

4. a

5. b

6. b

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 3 Examination Instructions

The Unit Examination

The unit examination contains 25 multiple choice questions, as well as a writing assignment.

Your grade on the examination will be determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct B = 80% – 89% correct C = 70% – 79% correct D = 60% – 69% correct F = 59% and below correct

4 grade points 3 grade points 2 grade points 1 grade point 0 grade points

Completing Unit Three Examination

Additional detailed information on completing the examination, writing standards and how to submit your completed examination may be found in the syllabus for this course.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 3 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Most college students represent which type of person in Merton’s typology of deviance?

a. conformists b. innovators c. ritualists d. retreatists

2. A homeless person who decides to live in the woods is probably best represented by which of the following people using Merton’s typology of deviance?

a. conformists b. innovators c. ritualists d. retreatists

3. Which of the following represent strain according to new interpretations of strain theory?

a. negative relationships with family and friends b. poverty c. unemployment d. All of the above.

4. Which theory of deviance tries to explain why individuals do not commit crime?

a. labeling theory b. strain theory c. social control theory d. theory of differential association

5. Sampson and Laub’s research on delinquent and non-delinquent youths in Boston found delinquency was greater when bonds with which social institutions were weakest?

a. family b. education c. work d. both a and c

Unit 3 Examination

100

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. In high school, Janet rarely got involved in smoking or drinking. In college, Janet found some friends who spent most of their off time consuming large amounts of alcohol and other drugs. Soon, she did the same and did not know anyone who did not spend their time that way. Which theory best explains Janet’s behavior given this limited amount of information?

a. labeling theory b. strain theory c. social control theory d. theory of differential association

7. Which of the following best exemplifies white collar crimes?

a. stealing a purse b. simple assault c. telling a lie to your friend d. embezzling from work

8. Murder would most likely be considered the breaking of a ________________ while picking your nose in public would be breaking a ________________.

a. more; folkway b. folkway; more c. norm; value d. both are mores

9. Scholars contend that ______________ and _______________ are two factors that affect the likelihood of committing a crime.

a. controls; formal sanctions b. certainty; severity c. certainty; informal sanctions d. severity; formal sanctions

10. Given the research on the epidemiology of mental health, which group is most likely to report problems with drinking? Depression?

a. married people; singles b. African-Americans; Latinos c. African-Americans; Whites d. men; women

Unit 3 Examination

101

PSY 228 Social Psychology

11. The stresses associated with living in urban areas come from _____________ while the stresses associated with rural areas tend to be a result of _____________.

a. lack of stimulation; ambient hazards b. ambient hazards; lack of stimulation c. urban malaise; rural malaise d. negative life events; chronic stresses

12. How do group processes scholars examine the concept of mental illness?

a. It is viewed as a status characteristic like race or gender. b. It is viewed as a normal part of group interactions. c. It is viewed as a major area of group research. d. It is viewed as a way for individuals in groups to negotiate identity.

13. Which of the following would be considered a total institution?

a. your college b. a police station c. a prison d. a family household

14. Which sociologist is most associated with the concept of stigma?

a. Erving Goffman b. Georg Simmel c. George Herbert Mead d. Herbert Blumer

15. Goffman’s research on total institutions showed that many patients in insane asylums generally ____________ their roles as patients.

a. resist b. accept c. use colonization to cope with d. None of the above.

16. Which of the following coping strategies emphasize patients’ attempts to rebel against asylum staff?

a. conversion b. intransigence c. withdrawal d. colonization

Unit 3 Examination

102

PSY 228 Social Psychology

17. The loss of a job is represented in which component of the stress process?

a. stressors b. outcomes c. mediators and moderators d. social and economic characteristics

18. LaPiere’s study of prejudice clearly showed that most people _____________.

a. have some prejudice b. act on their prejudices c. do not act on their prejudices d. both a and c

19. Overall, American political attitudes lean on being ______________.

a. very conservative b. moderately conservative c. moderately liberal d. very liberal

20. Which of the following groups could be identified as most liberal in the U.S.?

a. females living in the Midwest b. females living on the West Coast c. males living in the Midwest d. males living on the West Coast

21. Which of the following groups spend the most time on childcare? Which group has shown an increase in time spent with childcare?

a. women for both questions b. men for both questions c. men; women d. women; men

22. Which of the following social theorists is most associated with studying racial prejudice in the United States?

a. George Herbert Mead b. W.E.B. Du Bois c. Talcott Parsons d. William Thomas

Unit 3 Examination

103

PSY 228 Social Psychology

23. Based on status construction theory, what would be the best way to get what you want out of a group and leave a positive impression?

a. Act like a very nice person. b. Act like a generous person. c. Act like a majority member of society. d. Act like a high-status person.

24. Willer’s research showing presidential approval ratings increasing after the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the U.S. clearly showed ____________.

a. in-group bias tendencies b. out-group bias tendencies c. prejudicial biases d. ideological alliances

25. The slow treatment of Hurricane Katrina victims was used as an example of ____________ in your text.

a. government inefficiency b. conscious racism c. unconscious racism d. None of the above.

Unit 3 Examination

104

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Writing Assignment for Unit Three

• Responses must be submitted as a MS Word Document only, typed double-spaced, using a standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type size.

Undergraduate courses: 350 – 500 words or 1 – 2 pages. Graduate courses: 500 – 750 words or 2 – 3 pages. Doctoral courses: 750 – 1000 words or 4 – 5 pages.

Plagiarism

Please answer ONE of the following:

• Include your name, student number, course number, course title and unit number on each page of your writing assignment (this is for your protection in case your materials become separated).

• Begin each writing assignment by identifying the question number you are answering followed by the actual question itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions (i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

1. How do symbolic interactionists examine the social construction of mental health? Specifically, review Foucault’s historical analysis of mental illness in western cultures and the medicalization of deviance.

2. Discuss how community conditions can impact individuals’ mental health. Be specific about the role of stressors and resources available under different community conditions (e.g., urban vs. rural; poor vs. middle class).

3. Review the different dimensions of attitudes. How does the complexity in attitudes help to explain the relatively weak relationship between a person’s attitudes and their behaviors?

You Can Do It

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Unit 3 is done! You’re close to the finish line and we’re cheering you on to victory!

Objectives

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Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Ten The Sociology of Sentiment and Emotion

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish the components of emotions.

2. Determine how people learn emotions.

3. Consider how identity relates to emotions.

4. Evaluate how our statuses in society affect our uses of emotions.

5. Interpret the norms that govern the use of emotions in different social settings.

6. Predict how group settings affect emotions.

• Read pages 277-306 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

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This chapter reviews the many dimensions of sentiment and emotions. It also examines the role of emotions in the development and maintenance of society, as well as the impact of society and culture on the development and expression of emotions.

This chapter will start by reviewing how sociologists study the upward movement of emotions in the creation of society and the social construction of emotions more generally. It will also review the structured nature of emotions and how society shapes the scope and expression of emotions.

Key Terms

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The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Affect:

Cybernetic approach:

Distributive justice:

Edgework:

Emotional cues:

Emotional intelligence:

Emotional scripts:

Emotions:

Interaction ritual:

Mood:

Potency:

Procedure justice:

Sentiment:

Transient sentiments:

Summary

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PSY 228 Social Psychology

Sociological perspectives on emotion emphasize the cybernetic approach to the study of emotions: emotions radiate upward from individual-level interactions to maintain social structures as well as downward when social structure helps to shape our emotions.

Symbolic interactionists believe we learn emotions like we learn about other aspects of social life: through interaction with other people. The sociocentric model of emotional socialization argues that the primary means of learning about emotions comes from social instruction, whereas affect control theory argues that people use emotions as signals as to how well they are performing their role in a given situation.

People use emotional scripts and cues to help use and manage emotions in day-to-day life. The theory of interaction ritual chains emphasizes the role of emotions in maintaining macrosociological social institutions.

The power-status approach to emotions says that emotions result from real, anticipated, imagined or recollected outcomes of social interactions. The gain or loss of power and status are primary ways in which our position affects our emotional life.

The norms that govern our emotional lives are called feeling rules. We may receive “rule reminders” from friends and family when we do not “feel” appropriately. Emotion work refers to the generation of prescribed emotion to meet the demands of a job. The commodification of emotions is associated with the concept of “McDonaldization.”

The socioemotional economy is a system for regulating emotional resources among people that links individuals into larger networks of people. Sympathy is an important example of this economy. Emotion culture refers to a society’s expectation about how to experience different emotions. According to the group processes perspective, there are at least two ways in which exchange processes may affect your emotions: the concern over getting what is fair out of the group and the way in which distributions are made in a group. Emotions can also affect status relationships in group exchanges such that higher-status people are freer to express certain emotions than lower status people.

Self Test

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Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Based on Thoit’s treatment of emotions, which of the following is NOT a dimension of emotion?

a. situational cues b. physiological changes c. an arousal d. an emotion label

2. The moment that society gives meaning to an emotion it becomes a _____________.

a. sentiment b. feeling c. mood d. affect

3. Clem has been feeling sad all day long. What term best describes his emotional state?

a. sentiment b. feeling c. mood d. affect

4. Which of the following would be considered a primary emotion?

a. anger b. fear c. depression d. All of the above are primary emotions.

5. Non-verbal behaviors play a lesser role than verbal communication does.

a. True b. False

6. The meanings of emotions are stable over a life course.

a. True b. False

Self Test

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Answer Keys

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Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Affect: An evaluative component of an emotion.

Cybernetic approach: The study of emotion that assumes that social conditions shape our emotions; and in turn, our emotions act to maintain social structures.

Distributive justice: In exchange theory, it is the belief about the fairness of what people get.

Edgework: Thrill-seeking behaviors designed to produce intense emotions.

Emotional cues: Information about when and what emotions are appropriate in a given social setting.

Emotional intelligence: Our ability to control and employ emotions in our social environments.

Emotional scripts: Expectations about when and how to act excited, angry, sad and so on.

Emotions: Feelings that incorporate situational cures, physiological changes, expressive gestures and an emotion label.

Interaction ritual: The exchange of symbols and emotion between individuals essential to maintaining society.

Mood: A diffuse emotional state that lasts a relatively long period of time.

Potency: Element of affect control theory referring to how a person’s sentiment toward an object is powerful or powerless.

Procedure justice: In exchange theory, it is the beliefs about the fairness of the methods used to make distributions.

Sentiment: A feeling that has been given meaning by society.

Transient sentiments: Sentiments unique to specific interactions.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

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1. c

2. a

3. c

4. d

5. b

6. b

Notes

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Objectives

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Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Eleven Collective Behavior

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Analyze how crowds contribute to the development of mass hysteria.

2. Identify theories that explain individuals’ behavior in large groups.

3. Decide whether structural conditions affect crowd behaviors.

4. Chart the phases of collective behavior found in large social movements.

5. Evaluate how group and individual motivations interact in social movements.

• Read pages 307-336 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

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The goal of this chapter is to review theories of collective behavior and the current research on behaviors that occur during collective events.

This chapter will review theories and research related to the concepts of collective behavior, collective action and social movements.

Key Terms

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The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Acting crowds:

Collective identity:

Craze:

Expressive crowd:

Hostile outbursts:

Mass:

Milling:

Routine dispersal:

Social dilemma:

Structural strain:

Summary

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PSY 228 Social Psychology

Traditional theories of collective behavior, collective action and social movements emphasize the ways in which crowds transform the individuals acting in them, turning them into irrational beings. Rational choice perspectives on collective action emphasize the idea that people in groups are purposive in their decisions and actions in everyday life, including group events.

Research on protests in the United States over the last decades has shown that most protests and marches are small in nature. Very few marches go over 100,000 participants and very few involve civil disobedience. However, only the largest protests receive much media attention.

Sociological social psychologists also study how we develop collective memories, examining the conditions that produce spontaneous thoughts or feelings at the same time; how conditions coalesce to bring us to believe something is true; what an event means to a people; and, finally, how we categorize those memories with other historical events.

Research evidence in the group processes tradition indicates that people will be likely to form coalitions when they are faced with large power disparities. The free-rider problem and social dilemmas are typical problems found in behavior within and between groups.

Self Test

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Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. The March for Life protest against abortion is probably best described as a ______________.

a. social action b. collective action c. social movement d. collective movement

2. Gustave LeBon’s book, The Crowd, is based on observations of which of the following events?

a. the Russian Revolution b. The French Revolution c. WWII d. the Chinese Revolution

3. Which theorist is most associated with mass hysteria theory?

a. Carl Couch b. Herbert Blumer c. Neil Smelser d. Gustave LeBon

4. According to Blumer’s theory of circular reaction, when do individuals in crowds start to lose control and act without much rationality?

a. during the milling phase when individuals are encouraged to act out against authorities b. during the interpretation phase when individuals are encouraged to act out against authorities c. during the interpretation phase when individuals lose their ability to communicate about appropriate behavior d. during the milling phase when individuals lose their ability to communicate about appropriate behavior

5. Research on crowd and protest behaviors has generally supported LeBon and other scholars from the mass hysteria tradition.

a. true b. false

Self Test

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6. Guilford went to a protest against the school’s smoking policy because he truly believed that it was wrong and should be changed. He had been a leader in the anti-smoking group for a number of years prior to the march. According to Turner and Killian, which kind of participant is he?

a. ego-involved participant b. concerned participant c. insecure participant d. curiosity seeker

Answer Keys Social Psychology Essay homework help

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Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Acting crowds: Groups of people with a focus,or goal who act with unity to achieve the goal.

Collective identity: An individual’s sense of connection with a larger community or group.

Craze: When large numbers of people become obsessed with something like the purchase of a product or an activity.

Expressive crowd: Crowd that lacks a goal and is primarily a setting for emotional release, which often occurs through rhythmical actions such as applause, dancing or singing.

Hostile outbursts: Any type of mass violence or killings.

Mass: Anonymous individuals from many social strata that are loosely organized.

Milling: Part of the circular reaction process in which individuals at an event anxiously move about in a seemingly aimless and random fashion.

Routine dispersal: A dispersal in which participants leave a gathering in a rational, orderly fashion.

Social dilemma: A situation whereby if every person acts in his or her own best interests, the results will be bad for the group.

Structural strain: Element of value-added theory stating there must be some level of conflict over some issue or problem to initiate collective action.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

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1. c

2. b

3. d

4. c

5. b

6. a

Notes

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Unit 4 Examination Instructions

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The Unit Examination

The unit examination contains 25 multiple choice questions, as well as a writing assignment.

Your grade on the examination will be determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct B = 80% – 89% correct C = 70% – 79% correct D = 60% – 69% correct F = 59% and below correct

4 grade points 3 grade points 2 grade points 1 grade point 0 grade points

Completing Unit Four Examination

Additional detailed information on completing the examination, writing standards and how to submit your completed examination may be found in the syllabus for this course.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 4 Examination

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Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Which of the following jobs is most likely to have an extensive set of feeling rules?

a. a stay-at-home mother b. a cashier at McDonalds c. a plumber d. a farmer

2. Zurcher’s concept of emotional scripts most closely resembles what other concept reviewed in this chapter?

a. emotion rules b. emotional energy c. feeling rules d. sentiment

3. Milan was a little perturbed when his boss refused to accept some flowers he had brought as a sign of his sadness over the loss of her sister. Which sympathy rule did his boss break?

a. Do not make false claims of sympathy. b. Do not claim too much sympathy. c. Claim some sympathy. d. Reciprocate to other for their gift of sympathy.

4. Based on Lofland’s analysis of the role of culture in the expression of grief in society, which of the following places would have the hardest time coping with the loss of a child?

a. modern day Asia b. modern day Europe c. modern day Ethiopia d. modern day America

5. Swidler’s research on love in American culture revealed what?

a. Americans find it hard to fall in love. b. Americans initiate relationships based on a mythical view of emotional bonding between lovers. c. Americans use a more realistic view of love to sustain relationships on a day-to-day basis. d. both b and c

Unit 4 Examination

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6. According to exchange theory and research, which of the following situations is most likely to produce a positive emotion?

a. an exchange in which people get the amount equal to their position in the group b. an exchange in which you get as much as you gave c. an exchange in which you get less than you gave d. All of these exchanges will produce a positive emotion.

7. According to the exchange theory, what sentiment is EXPECTED when you get more out of an exchange than you give?

a. sadness b. guilt c. happiness d. joy

8. According to research and theory of group processes, how does power in relationships affect our emotions?

a. Relationships characterized as having equal power engender positive emotion. b. Power makes us feel guilty in social exchanges. c. Relationships characterized as having unequal power engender positive emotion. d. Power gives us a positive feeling only when we deserve it during social exchanges.

9. Secondary emotions are ________________.

a. learned through socialization b. similar to sentiments c. social emotions d. All the above.

10. Your feeling that a district attorney has a lot of power refer to which dimension of affect control theory?

a. evaluation b. potency c. activity d. strength

11. What emotion did wheelchair users employ when managing interactions with “stand-up” people in Cahill and Eggleston’s study of people with a handicap?

a. fear b. humor c. love d. anger

Unit 4 Examination

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PSY 228 Social Psychology

12. Your friend, Chloe, goes through a bad break-up and her cat runs away all in the same week. When you and Chloe are out to dinner one night you run into Sarah, a good friend of yours from school. Chloe expresses the tragedies that have befallen her the past week to Sarah who proceeds to listen and then changes the conversation. Once back to your dinner, Chloe expresses her dismay and hurt that Sarah did not seem concerned about her break-up or loss of her cat. Sarah is upset because her ______________ were not met.

a. social scripts b. emotional scripts c. sentiments d. emotions

13. According to Randall Collins’ theory of interaction ritual chains, what role does emotion play in the maintenance of society?

a. Emotional energies provide the reason for maintaining interactions in society. b. Emotional scripts provide information about how to behave in society. c. Emotions give us cues as to whether we are performing our roles in society adequately. d. Emotions exist within a series of “feeling rules” about how to behave in society.

14. Which of the following jobs does NOT demand high levels of emotion work.

a. waitress b. teacher c. customer service agent d. None of the above.

15. Steve turned to the people around him for help in deciding how to act at a local protest. According to perception control theory, what form of perception control is he using?

a. independent instruction b. interdependent instruction c. organizational instruction d. interactional instruction

16. What is the best predictor of an individual participating in a march or a riot?

a. her structural position b. her concern over a social condition in society c. her being asked to go to the event d. her access to resources

Unit 4 Examination

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PSY 228 Social Psychology

17. The vast majority of protests and other collective events have which kind of dispersal?

a. routine dispersal b. emergency dispersal c. coerced dispersal d. active dispersal

18. Which of the following are typical behaviors at a large protest march?

a. People break off into a series of smaller groups. b. People form lines to access various facilities. c. People develop arcs and circles around speakers. d. All of the above are typical behaviors.

19. ____________ is thrill-seeking behaviors designed to produce intense emotions.

a. Potency b. Edgework c. Cyberneticism d. None of the above.

20. Enduring emotional meanings in a given society is known as _____________.

a. fundamental sentiments b. transient sentiments c. emotional cues d. emotion work

21. The debate as to whether or not you should stop and look at an accident while driving by, possibly slowing down the traffic behind you, is an example of a ______________.

a. social dilemma b. free rider problem c. group conformity d. mass hysteria

22. Public radio—radio stations that rely, in part, on listener support to stay in business—run the risk of what problem?

a. a social dilemma b. the free rider problem c. group conformity d. mass hysteria

Unit 4 Examination

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23. The use of _______________ is important to the forming of collective memories.

a. storytelling b. collective behavior c. collective emotion d. framing

24. According to emergent norm theory, the _______________ is the type of person who participates in the group out of curiosity.

a. ego-involved participant b. curiosity seeker c. concerned participant d. insecure participant

25. Phase of collective behavior referring to the factors that bring people together into the same place at the same time.

a. gathering phase b. homogeneity of mood c. assembling phase d. interpretive phase

Unit 4 Examination

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PSY 228 Social Psychology

Writing Assignment for Unit Four

• Responses must be submitted as a MS Word Document only, typed double-spaced, using a standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type size.

Undergraduate courses: 350 – 500 words or 1 – 2 pages. Graduate courses: 500 – 750 words or 2 – 3 pages. Doctoral courses: 750 – 1000 words or 4 – 5 pages.

Plagiarism

Please answer ONE of the following:

• Include your name, student number, course number, course title and unit number on each page of your writing assignment (this is for your protection in case your materials become separated).

• Begin each writing assignment by identifying the question number you are answering followed by the actual question itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions (i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

1. Review the theory of interaction ritual chains. How do our emotions contribute to the maintenance of society according to this theory?

2. Review the role of emotions in exchange processes. What conditions are most likely to produce positive emotions? Negative emotions? What role does power and status play in the development of emotions in exchange relationships?

3. Apply group processes theory and research related to coalitions to explain the development of social movements more broadly. First, define the concept of coalition. Second, describe how coalitions work and the conditions that make them successful. Third, apply this information to explain how and why people initiate social movements in society.

You Can Do It

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Congratulations! You have completed Unit 4.

Now let’s sharpen our pencils for the Final Exam.

We are confident you will do well.

Final Examination Instructions

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PSY 228 Social Psychology

About the Final Examination

After you have successfully completed all of the unit examinations and writing assignments, it will be time for you to take the final examination.

The final examination will be provided by student services only after you have completed all four unit examinations and submitted all four writing assignments.

Scheduling a Final Examination

Final examination requests can be submitted via U.S. mail, online through the Coast Connection student portal, or by calling the Testing Department at (714) 547-9625.

A final exam scheduling form is located on the last page of this study guide. Please fill out ALL required fields and mail it to the university.

Final exams will only be sent if you have completed all four unit examinations and submitted all four writing assignments.

Submitting Your Final Examination

Final Examinations can be submitted by mail, fax or online through the Coast Connection student portal.

After you have completed your exam, you or your proctor can fax it to the Grading Department at (714) 547-1451 or mail it to the university. When faxing exams, please do not resize your fax.

Final Exam Scheduling Form

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The university requires all final examinations to be completed under the supervision of a proctor. Please provide information on your designated proctor. ALL information must be filled in; otherwise, your request will not be processed.

Date _____________________________ Student I.D. ______________________________________________

Student Name ________________________________________________________________________________

Address ______________________________________________________________________________________

City __________________________________________________ State _________________________________

Zip Code ________________ Country ____________________________________________________________

E-Mail Address _______________________________________________________________________________

Daytime Telephone _____________________________ Evening Telephone _____________________________

Course Information:

Course Number ___________ Course Title _______________________________________________________

Please send the Final Examination to:

Proctor’s Name _______________________________________________________________________________

Proctor’s Relationship to Student ________________________________________________________________

Street Address _______________________________________________________________________

City ______________________________ State _________________ Zip Code __________________________

Country __________________________________ Email Address ___________________________

Daytime Telephone _________________________ Evening Telephone _________________________________

Student’s Signature ________________________________________________________________________

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The Aging Process homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

The Aging Process homework help

DISCUSSION 1:

The Aging Process

As individuals grow older, they experience biological changes, but how they experience these changes varies considerably. Senescence, or the process of aging, “affects different people, and various parts of the body, at different rates” (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016, p. 658).

What factors affect the aging process? Why do some individuals appear to age faster than others? In this Discussion you address these questions and consider how, you, as a social worker, might apply your understanding of the aging process to your work with older clients.

To prepare for this Discussion, read “Working With the Aging: The Case of Francine” in Social Work Case Studies: Foundation Year.

Post a Discussion in which you:

o Apply your understanding of the aging process to Francine’s case. How might Francine’s environment have influenced her aging process? How might you, as Francine’s social worker, apply your knowledge of the aging process to her case?

o Identify an additional strategy you might use to apply your knowledge of the aging process to social work practice with older clients in general. Explain why you would use the strategy.

Be sure to support your posts with specific references to the resources. If you are using additional articles, be sure to provide full APA-formatted citations for your references

References

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. M. (Eds.). (2014). Social work case studies: Foundation year. Baltimore, MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

Zastrow, C. H., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2016). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Working With the Aging: The Case of Francine

Francine is a 70-year-old, Irish Catholic female. She worked for 40 years as a librarian in an institution of higher education and retired at age 65. Francine has lived alone for the past year, after her partner, Joan, died of cancer. Joan and Francine had been together for 30 years, and while Francine personally identifies as a lesbian, she never came out to her family or to her colleagues. When speaking to all but her closest confidantes, Francine referred to Joan as her “best friend” or her “roommate.” Francine’s bereavement was therefore complicated because she did not feel she could discuss the true nature of her partnership with Joan. She felt that there was little recognition from her family, and even some of her close associates, of the impact and meaning of Joan’s death to Francine. There is a history of alcohol abuse in Francine’s family, and Francine abused alcohol from late adolescence into her mid-30s. However, Francine has been in recovery for several decades. Francine has no known sexual abuse history and no criminal history.

Francine sought counseling with me for several reasons, including an ongoing depressed mood, a lack of pleasure or enjoyment in her life, and loneliness and isolation since Joan’s death. She also reported that she had begun to drink again and that while her drinking was not yet at the level it had been earlier in her life, she was concerned that she could return to a dependence upon alcohol. Francine came to counseling with several considerable strengths, including a capacity to form intimate relationships, a successful work history, a history of having maintained her sobriety in the past for many years, as well as insight into the factors that had contributed to her current difficulties.

During our initial meetings, Francine stated that her goals were to feel less depressed, to reduce or stop drinking, and to feel less isolated. In order to ensure that no medical issues were contributing to her depression symptoms, I referred Francine to her primary care physician for an evaluation. Francine’s physician did not find any medical cause of her symptoms, diagnosing Francine with moderate clinical depression and recommending that Francine begin a course of antidepressant medication. Francine was reluctant to take medication and first wanted to try a course of counseling.

In order to help Francine meet her goal of reducing her depression symptoms, I employed a technique called behavioral activation (BA), which is drawn from principles of cognitive behavioral therapy and helps to reengage people in pleasant physical, social, and recreational activities. We began with a small initial goal of having Francine dedicate at least 5 minutes of each day to an activity she found pleasant or rewarding. Over the following weeks, we increased the time. Francine’s treatment progress was monitored through weekly completion of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) in order to determine whether or not her depressive symptoms were improving.

I helped Francine address her drinking by reconnecting her with effective coping strategies she had used in the past to achieve and maintain her sobriety. These included identifying triggers for the urge to drink and exploring her motivations for both continuing to drink and for stopping her use of alcohol. Francine began attending regular meetings of Alcoholics Anonymous^™ (AA) and found several meetings that were specifically for older women and for lesbians. In addition, Francine spoke regularly with a sponsor who helped her to remain abstinent during particularly stressful moments during her reengagement in sobriety.

Finally, in order to address Francine’s goal of feeling less lonely and isolated, we explored potential avenues to increase her social networks. In addition to spending time with her family, friends, and her AA sponsor, Francine began to visit the local lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT), center for the first time in her life and attended a support group for women who had lost their partners. Francine also began spending time at her local senior center and went there at least three times a week for exercise classes, other recreational activities, and lunch. She also began to do volunteer work at her local library once a week.

Over several months of counseling, Francine stopped drinking; significantly increased her daily involvement in pleasant and rewarding activities, including social and recreational activities; and reported feeling less lonely, despite still missing her partner a great deal. Francine’s scores on the PHQ-9 gradually decreased over time, and after 16 weeks of counseling, Francine reported that she no longer felt she needed the session to move on with her life. In addition, Francine visited her primary care physician, who found upon evaluation that her depression had lifted considerably and that an antidepressant was no longer indicated. By the end of counseling, Francine’s focused work on identifying her depression symptoms and her triggers for drinking equipped her to better recognize when she might need support in the future and to whom she could reach out for help if she needed it.

Discussion 2: Mental Health Care

Mental health care is a primary concern to social workers, who are the main providers of care to populations with mental health diagnoses. The system that provides services to individuals with mental health issues is often criticized for being reactive and only responding when individuals are in crisis. Crisis response is not designed to provide on-going care and is frequently very expensive, especially if hospitalization is involved.

Critics suggest a comprehensive plan, which involves preventive services, as well as a continuum of care. However, there are few, if any, effective and efficient program models. Social work expertise and input are vital to implementing effective services. Targeting services to individuals with a diagnosis of mental illness is one strategy. Another approach includes providing an array of services that are also preventative in nature. How might these suggestions address potential policy gaps in caring for individuals such as the family members in the Parker Family case?

For this Discussion, review this week’s resources, including the Parker Family video. Then consider the specific challenges or gaps in caring for individuals with a chronic mental illness might present for the mental health system based on the Parker case. Finally, think about how environmental stressors, such as poverty, can aggravate mental illness and make treatment more challenging.

· Post an explanation of the specific challenges or gaps in the mental health care system for the care of individuals with chronic mental illnesses.

· Base your response on the Parker case.

· Then, describe how environmental stressors, such as poverty, can aggravate mental illness and make treatment more challenging.

Support your post with specific references to the resources. Be sure to provide full APA citations for your references.

References

Popple, P. R., & Leighninger, L. (2015). The policy-based profession: An introduction to social welfare policy analysis for social workers. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

World Health Organization. (2004). Mental health policy and service guidance package: Mental health policy, plans and programmes. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mental_health/policy/en/policy_plans_revision.pdf

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. (Eds.). (2014). Sessions: Case histories. Baltimore: MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

Parker Family Episode 5 Program Transcript

COUNSELOR: So you’ve been hospitalized, let’s see, four times altogether.

FEMALE CLIENT: Well actually, I should have only been in the hospital three times.

COUNSELOR: Why do you say that?

FEMALE SPEAKER: Well, on the third hospital visit they kicked me out before I was ready to leave. They said I was just in there to get away from my mom, but I told them they were wrong. My sister even backed me up on this. But they didn’t care. They just checked me out, and home sweet home I went. I was barely gone like a month and I was back in their monkey house. So technically, for me, hospital visits three and four are the same. I remember going back to that hospital seeing the same docs and nurses, and I just smiled and waved and said, see, I told you so. I mean, we picked up right where we left off.

COUNSELOR: What do you mean your sister backed you up?

FEMALE CLIENT: Jane, that’s my sister. Jane, she knew how crazy my mom is, so she took pictures of all that mess and all that junk my mom hoards, and she showed them to the social worker in the hospital.

COUNSELOR: What happened?

FEMALE CLIENT: You know what the social worker said? She said that there was nothing that she can do about it, that her job was to only make sure that patients have a place to go when they leave the hospital. Translation, when you’re out the door, good riddance and good luck. Some policy, huh?

Discussion 3: Emerging Issues in Mental Health Care

Like so many areas of practice in social work, mental health is dynamic and ever-evolving. Research continues to provide new information about how the brain functions, the role of genetics in mental health, and evidence to support new possibilities for treatment. Keeping up with these developments might seem impossible. However, being aware of and responsive to these developments and incorporating them into both your practice and social policy is essential to changing the lives of individuals and families who live with a mental health diagnosis and the impact it brings to their daily lives.

For this Discussion, review this week’s resources. Search the Library and other reputable online sources for emerging issues in the mental health care arena. Think about the issues that are being addressed by social policy and those that are in need of policy advocacy and why that might be the case. Then, consider what social workers can do to ensure that clients/populations receive necessary mental health services. Also, think about the ethical responsibility related to mental health care social workers must uphold in host settings when they encounter conflicts in administration and home values. Finally, search your state government sites for the mental health commitment standards in your state and reflect on the mental health services covered under your state’s Medicaid program.

· Post an explanation of those emerging issues in the mental health care arena that the policymakers address and those that are in need of policy advocacy and why.

· Then, explain what strategies social workers might use to ensure that clients/populations receive necessary mental health services.

· Finally, explain the mental health commitment standards and mental health services in your state. In your explanation, refer to the services covered under your state’s Medicaid program.

Support your post with specific references to the resources. Be sure to provide full APA citations for your references.

References

Popple, P. R., & Leighninger, L. (2015). The policy-based profession: An introduction to social welfare policy analysis for social workers. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. (Eds.). (2014). Sessions: Case histories. Baltimore: MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

Mental Health America. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2013, from www.mentalhealthamerica.net

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Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.

Details:

This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.

Before beginning this assignment, each group should submit a filled-in copy of the CLC Agreement Form.

Each CLC team will design a correlational study, groups will need two variables with at least five sets of data. between these two variables: time spent playing video games and aggression.

Then in 500-750 words, do the following:

Create a hypothesis for the group’s study. Consider the hypothesis and how the group will define operationally and measure the variables.
Describe how the group will obtain a random sample of participants.
Assume the study produces a correlation of .56 between the variables. Analyze three possible causal reasons for the relationship.
Submit an SPSS output for the correlational study.

Use two to four scholarly resources to support your explanations.

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.

This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.

You are required to submit this assignment to Turnitin. Please refer to the directions in the Student Success Center.

CLC Agreement Form

CLC Course Information

Course Name/Section Number:
Instructor’s Name:
Start Date of the Course:

CLC Member Contact Information

(Group members predicated/adjusted upon instructor discretion.)

CLC Member Name	Primary E-mail Address	Secondary E-mail Address	Other Contact Information

CLC Group Norms/Values

(Steps to ensure team success.)

Each team member agrees to do the following:	Why this is important to the team?
Check into the CLC regularly to review progress on the assignment.
Contribute ideas and feedback to the group from initial discussions throughout assignment completion.
Communicate with all CLC members as soon as a problem or issue arises.
Maintain respectful communications with all team members.
Complete assigned tasks by the deadlines set by the CLC members.
Take a leadership role in CLC assignments.
Cite and reference all sources of information used in completing tasks.
Other:
Other:

Assignment Management Specifics

(What needs to be undertaken to complete the CLC assignment?)

CLC Group Member’s Name:	Task to be completed by this team member:	Due date for completing the task for the CLC to review:
	Contributes one or more ideas for implementing and completing assignment.
	Outlines the CLC assignment.
	Assigns tasks to CLC members.
	Performs research on assigned topics and writes it up for CLC members to review.
	Ensures members meet assigned deadlines for tasks.
	Proofreads and edits assignment.
	Submits assignment(s) by the due date.
	Other:
	Other:

CLC Group Interaction Guidelines

(How can we anticipate and mediate group conflict if/when it arises?)

What may impede teamwork?	Group (Re) mediation Process
A CLC member does not provide assignment ideas or feedback to team members.
A CLC member does not complete any components of his/her task.
A CLC member completes his or her task, but turns it in after the agreed-upon due date.
Other:
Other:

CLC Group Review Process

(What makes a CLC effective?)

What did our CLC do well this time?	What can we do to be a more effective CLC next time?

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Philosophy Assignment

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Philosophy Assignment Help

Unit 3 Study Questions

Chapter 7

1. Nietzsche announces the death of God in a parable about

a. A madman holding a lantern

b. A lonely prophet walking the earth

c. Jesus

d. A desert hermit living in a cave

2. The madman’s proclamation that “God is dead” refers to the fact that

a. He has found incontrovertible proof that God never really existed in the first place

b. God has temporarily withdrawn Himself from the world, only to return at the end of time

c. People have ceased to believe in God

d. None of the above

3. The madman finds the death of God to be so terrifying because

a. All of his contemporaries are grief-stricken at the sudden disappearance of God, and do not know how to recover from this frightening piece of news

b. Without God human life is devoid of any intrinsic purpose, value, and meaning

c. Both A and B

d. None of the above

4. Shakespeare’s Macbeth says that life “is a tale told by an idiot, full of sound and fury, signifying nothing.” This would be an example of

a. Theism

b. Virtue ethics

c. Hedonism

d. Nihilism

5. “Life itself is essentially appropriation, injury, conquest of the strange and weak, suppression, severity…and at the least…exploitation.” Nietzsche here refers explicitly to

(HINT: see page 86, 89, paragraph 3!)

a. The Will to Power

b. Slave Morality

c. Judeo-Christianity

d. The German people

6. Each of the following is a characteristic of an aristocratic society EXCEPT:

(HINT: see pages 88-90!)

a. They come into being through conquest

b. Master Morality

c. They are the embodiment of will-to-power

d. They champion full equality among all members of society

7. Master morality is to slave morality as

(HINT: see pages 86-88, 90-91!)

a. nobility is to baseness

b. higher is to lower

c. affirmation of life is to negation of life

d. All of the above

8. The “good” of master morality is to the “good” of slave morality as

a. Noble is to despicable

b. Mediocrity is to excellence

c. Despicable is to noble

d. Rare is to exceptional

9. The “evil” of slave morality is to the “bad” of master morality as

a. cowardly is to heroic

b. lover is to beloved

c. self-glorification is to resentment

d. mediocrity is to excellence

10. The “good” of master morality is to the “evil” of slave morality as

a. resentment is to honor

b. hero is to coward

c. base is to noble

d. They are one and the same thing

11. According to Nietzsche, the modern liberal democratic ideal

a. encourages slavishness

b. is the only honorable value to be found in Judeo-Christianity

c. is embraced by master morality

d. is shunned by slave morality

12. Nihilism is the belief that

a. God is Good

b. Nothingness is an illusion of the mind

c. If we remain ignorant we will annihilate ourselves

d. The world is utterly meaningless

13. According to Nietzsche, the slavish individual expresses _________ for the noble types.

a. admiration

b. resentment

c. a feeling of kinship

d. affection

14. According to Nietzsche, slave morality originates from

(HINT: see page 87, 91!)

a. a feeling of superiority

b. the need for slaves to survive

c. economic inequality

d. faith in a higher power

15. According to Nietzsche, master morality originates from

a. the aristocratic man’s spontaneous self-glorification

b. resentment toward other aristocratic men

c. the need to combat low self-esteem

d. a will to the denial of life

Chapter 8

1. Ortega can best be described as

a. a nihilist

b. an elitist

c. a feminist

d. an egalitarian

2. According to Ortega, the masses have begun to insinuate themselves in each of the following areas EXCEPT:

a. politics

b. education

c. the priesthood

d. the arts

3. According to Ortega, the phenomenon of the “masses” as a concentrated group gaining power and influence in all sectors of society

a. is nothing new

b. is consistent with the rise of fascism in Spain

c. is a recent phenomenon

d. is a cause for great celebration

4. Each of the following is true about the mass man EXCEPT:

a. he is the “average” man

b. he belongs exclusively to the working class

c. he is comfortable in his mediocrity

d. he is not particularly ambitious

5. Each of the following is true about the “select individual” EXCEPT:

a. he snobbishly believes that he is simply superior to everyone else

b. he sets very high standards for himself

c. he assigns himself great tasks

d. his presence is not limited to any particular socio-economic stratum of society

6. The select individual is to the mass man

a. as higher is to lower

b. as rare is to common

c. as noble is to vulgar

d. all of the above

7. Before the advent of the “crowd phenomenon,” artistic, political, and intellectual enterprises were directed by

(HINT: see page 101, paragraph 10!)

a. anybody who wanted to take part

b. only those who were select individuals

c. only those who were qualified or at least claimed to be qualified

d. all of the above

8. According to Ortega, hyperdemocracy

a. is a threat to liberal democracy

b. is the mass man’s way of imposing itself on the rest of society

c. is the mass man’s way of stifling human excellence

d. all of the above

9. Each of the following is a characteristic of the “select individual” EXCEPT:

a. judges himself against a high standard.

b. complacency

c. qualified for intellectual, aesthetic, and political endeavors

d. runs the risk of being crushed under the weight of the mass

Chapter 9

1. Sartre’s phrase “existence precedes essence” means that

(HINT: see pages 107-108!)

a. God created man as a “blank slate” on which he can make his own essence.

b. Man created God in his own image

c. Man first has an essence, and then he confers on himself existence

d. Man exists in a godless universe, without any determinate nature or essence: he creates his own essence through his actions.

2. According to Sartre, when you choose how to live, you are choosing

(HINT: see pages 108-110!)

a. for your loved ones

b. for all mankind

c. for nobody but oneself

d. none of the above

3. In Sartre’s view, the existentialist finds the fact that God does not exist

(HINT: see pages 110-111!)

a. deeply distressing

b. liberating

c. insignificant

d. absurd to the point of being comical

4. Sartre argues that when he speaks of anguish, he is referring to

a. the feeling of having been abandoned by God

b. the fact that we are not responsible for our actions

c. man’s feeling of total and deep responsibility for all mankind

d. all of the above

5. According to Sartre, each human being is the sum total of his/her

a. hopes

b. actions

c. beliefs

d. ambitions

6. Sartre argues that when he speaks of forlornness, he means that

a. We are not responsible for our actions

b. We can never truly understand human nature

c. God does not exist, so we must face all of the consequences of this

d. all of the above.

7. Sartre criticizes certain atheists in the 1880s that wanted to create an atheist ethics on the grounds that

a. without God, there can be no a priori standard of good to which everyone is bound to conform.

b. there can be no salvation without embracing our Lord and Savior Jesus Christ

c. atheists are generally very immoral people

d. none of the above

8. Sartre argues that when he speaks of despair, he means that

(HINT: see pages 112-113!)

a. when one chooses, one chooses for oneself only

b. one should reckon only with what depends on our will

c. life is a tale told by an idiot

d. all of the above

9. According to Sartre, the value of one’s feeling is determined by

(HINT: see page 111!)

a. the way one feels

b. what one believes

c. the way one acts

d. all of the above

10. Each of the following is true for Sartre EXCEPT:

a. You are the sum total of your hopes and dreams

b. Responsibility for one’s actions involves being responsible for everyone

c. Man’s situation is characterized by anguish, forlornness, and despair

d. We are “condemned to be free”

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Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Application

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory Application

Read the “Case Study Analysis.”

Write a 1,000-1,500-word analysis of the case study using Freud’s psychoanalytic theory approach. Include the following in your analysis.

What will be the goals of counseling and what intervention strategies are used to accomplish those goals?
Describe the process of treatment using this theory. This should include a description of the length of treatment, the role of the counselor, and the experience of the client as they work from beginning to termination of therapy.
How does this theory address the social and cultural needs of the client? (Cite specific research findings)
Describe valuable insights of coming to understand the client’s unconscious world as the counseling process continues.
How can a counselor implement Freudian processes in counseling without undue risk to the client or the counseling relationship?

Include at least six scholarly references beyond the textbook in your analysis.

Each response to the assignment prompts should be addressed under a separate heading in your paper. Refer to “APA Headings and Seriation,” located on the Purdue Owl website for help in formatting the headings.

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center.

This assignment uses a rubric.

CNL-500 Case Study Analysis

Client Name: Ana

Client age: 24

Gender: F

Presenting Problem

Client states, “I recently lost my job and feel hopeless. I can’t sleep and don’t feel like eating.” Client also reports she has lost 10 pounds during the last two months. Client states that she is a solo parent and is worried about becoming homeless. Client states, “I worry all the time. I can’t get my brain to shut off. My husband is in the military and currently serving in an overseas combat zone for the next eight months. I worry about him all the time.”

Behavioral Observations

Client arrived 30 minutes early for her appointment. Client stated that she had never been in counseling before. Client depressed and anxious, as evidenced by shaking hands and tearfulness as she filled out her intake paperwork. Ana made little eye contact as she described what brought her into treatment. Client speech was halting. Client affect flat. Client appeared willing to commit to eight sessions of treatment authorized by her insurance company.

General Background

Client is a 24-year-old first-generation immigrant from Guatemala. Ana was furloughed from her job as a loan officer at local bank three months ago. Client reported that she was from a wealthy family in Guatemala, but does not want to ask for help. Client speaks fluent Spanish.

Education

Client has completed one year of college with a major in business. Client states that she left college after her son was born as she found it difficult to manage a baby, college, and a full-time job.

Family Background

Client is the middle of four siblings. Client has two older brothers and one younger sister. Client’s parents have been married for 27 years. Client states that she has had a “close” relationship with her family, although she states that her father is a “heavy drinker.” Client states that all her brothers and sisters have graduated from college and have professional careers. Client states that her father is a banker and her mother is an educator. Client states that she has not seen her family for 1 year. Client has a 1-year-old son and states that she is sometimes “overwhelmed” by raising him alone.

Major Stressors

· Lack of family and supportive friends

· Financial problems due to job loss

· Husband deployed overseas

· Raising a baby by herself

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Biopsychology Biopsychology homewotk help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Biopsychology Biopsychology

Hunger, Eating, and Health Why Do Many People Eat Too Much?

12.1 Digestion, Energy Storage, and Energy Utilization

12.2 Theories of Hunger and Eating: Set Points versus Positive Incentives

12.3 Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat

12.4 Physiological Research on Hunger and Satiety

12.5 Body Weight Regulation: Set Points versus Settling Points

12.6 Human Obesity: Causes, Mechanisms, and Treatments

12.7 Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa

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source of serious personal and health problems. Most eating-related health problems in industrialized

nations are associated with eating too much—the average American consumes 3,800 calories per day, about twice the average daily requirement (see Kopelman, 2000). For

example, it is estimated that 65% of the adult U.S. popu- lation is either overweight or clinically obese, qualifying

this problem for epidemic status (see Abelson & Kennedy, 2004; Arnold, 2009). The resulting financial and personal costs are huge. Each year in the United States, about $100 billion is spent treating obesity-related disorders (see Ol- shansky et al., 2005). Moreover, each year, an estimated 300,000 U.S. citizens die from disorders caused by their excessive eating (e.g., diabetes, hypertension, cardiovas- cular diseases, and some cancers). Although the United States is the trend-setter when it comes to overeating and obesity, many other countries are not far behind (Sofsian, 2007). Ironically, as overeating and obesity have reached epidemic proportions, there has been a related increase in disorders associated with eating too little (see Polivy & Herman, 2002). For example, almost 3% of American adolescents currently suffer from anorexia or bulimia, which can be life-threatening in extreme cases.

The massive increases in obesity and other eating- related disorders that have occurred over the last few decades in many countries stand in direct opposition to most people’s thinking about hunger and eating. Many people—and I assume that this includes you—believe that hunger and eating are normally triggered when the

body’s energy resources fall below a prescribed optimal level, or set point. They ap- preciate that many factors in-

fluence hunger and eating, but they assume that the hunger and eating system has evolved to supply the body with just the right amount of energy.

This chapter explores the incompatibility of the set- point assumption with the current epidemic of eating disorders. If we all have hunger and eating systems

whose primary function is to maintain energy resources at optimal levels, then eating disorders should be rare. The fact that they are so prevalent suggests that hunger and eating are regulated in some other way. This chapter will repeatedly challenge you to think in new ways about issues that impact your health and longevity and will provide new insights of great personal relevance—I guarantee it.

Before you move on to the body of the chapter, I would like you to pause to consider a case study. What would a severely amnesic patient do if offered a meal

shortly after finishing one? If his hunger and eating were controlled by energy set points, he would refuse the sec- ond meal. Did he?

The Case of the Man Who Forgot Not to Eat

R.H. was a 48-year-old male whose progress in graduate school was interrupted by the development of severe am- nesia for long-term explicit memory. His amnesia was similar in pattern and severity to that of H.M., whom you met in Chapter 11, and an MRI examination revealed bilateral damage to the medial temporal lobes.

The meals offered to R.H. were selected on the basis of interviews with him about the foods he liked: veal parmi- giana (about 750 calories) plus all the apple juice he wanted. On one occasion, he was offered a second meal about 15 minutes after he had eaten the first, and he ate it. When offered a third meal 15 minutes later, he ate that, too. When offered a fourth meal he rejected it, claiming that his “stomach was a little tight.”

Then, a few minutes later, R.H. announced that he was going out for a good walk and a meal. When asked what he was going to eat, his answer was “veal parmigiana.”

Clearly, R.H.’s hunger (i.e., motivation to eat) did not result from an energy deficit (Rozin et al., 1998). Other cases like that of R.H. have been reported by Higgs and colleagues (2008).

12.1 Digestion, Energy Storage, and Energy Utilization

The primary purpose of hunger is to increase the proba- bility of eating, and the primary purpose of eating is to supply the body with the molecular building blocks and energy it needs to survive and function (see Blackburn, 2001). This section provides the foundation for our con- sideration of hunger and eating by providing a brief overview of the processes by which food is digested, stored, and converted to energy.

Digestion The gastrointestinal tract and the process of digestion are illustrated in Figure 12.1 on page 300. Digestion is the gastrointestinal process of breaking down food and ab- sorbing its constituents into the body. In order to appre- ciate the basics of digestion, it is useful to consider the body without its protuberances, as a simple living tube

29912.1 ■ Digestion, Energy Storage, and Energy Utilization

Thinking CreativelyThinking Creatively

Clinical Clinical Implications Implications

Eating is a behavior that is of interest to virtuallyeveryone. We all do it, and most of us derive greatpleasure from it. But for many of us, it becomes a

Watch You Are What You Eat www.mypsychlab.com

Watch Thinking about Hunger www.mypsychlab.com

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(a simple sugar that is the breakdown product of complex carbohydrates, that is, starches and sugars).

The body uses energy continuously, but its consump- tion is intermittent; therefore, it must store energy for use in the intervals between meals. Energy is stored in three forms: fats, glycogen, and proteins. Most of the body’s energy reserves are stored as fats, relatively little as glycogen and proteins (see Figure 12.2). Thus, changes in the body weights of adult humans are largely a conse- quence of changes in the amount of their stored body fat.

Why is fat the body’s preferred way of storing energy? Glycogen, which is largely stored in the liver and muscles, might be expected to be the body’s preferred mode of energy storage because it is so readily converted to glucose—the body’s main directly utilizable source of energy. But there

300 Chapter 12 ■ Hunger, Eating, and Health

Chewing breaks up food and mixes it with saliva.1 Saliva lubricates food and begins its digestion.2 Swallowing moves food and drink down the esophagus to the stomach.3 The primary function of the stomach is to serve as a storage reservoir. The

hydrochloric acid in the stomach breaks food down into small particles, and pepsin begins the process of breaking down protein molecules to amino acids.

The stomach gradually empties its contents through the pyloric sphincter into the

duodenum, the upper portion of the intestine, where most of the absorption takes place.

Digestive enzymes in the duodenum, many of them from the gall bladder and pancreas,

break down protein molecules to amino acids, and starch and complex sugar molecules to simple sugars. Simple sugars and amino acids readily pass through the duodenum wall into the bloodstream and are carried to the liver.

Fats are emulsified (broken into droplets) by bile, which is manufactured in the liver and

stored in the gall bladder until it is released into the duodenum. Emulsified fat cannot pass through the duodenum wall and is carried by small ducts in the duodenum wall into the lymphatic system.

Most of the remaining water and electrolytes are absorbed from the waste in

the large intestine, and the remainder is ejected from the anus.

Steps in Digestion

Parotid gland

Salivary glands

Esophagus

Liver

Stomach

Gall bladder

Pyloric sphincter

Pancreas

Duodenum

Large intestine or colon

Small intestine

Anus

with a hole at each end. To supply itself with energy and other nutrients, the tube puts food into one of its two holes—the one with teeth—and passes the food along its internal canal so that the food can be broken down and partially absorbed from the canal into the body. The leftovers are jettisoned from the other end. Although this is not a particularly appetizing description of eating, it does serve to illustrate that, strictly speaking, food has not been consumed until it has been digested.

Energy Storage in the Body As a consequence of digestion, energy is delivered to the body in three forms: (1) lipids (fats), (2) amino acids (the breakdown products of proteins), and (3) glucose

FIGURE 12.1 The gastrointestinal tract and the process of digestion.

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are two reasons why fat, rather than glycogen, is the pri- mary mode of energy storage: One is that a gram of fat can store almost twice as much energy as a gram of glyco- gen; the other is that glycogen, unlike fat, attracts and holds substantial quantities of water. Consequently, if all your fat calories were stored as glycogen, you would likely weigh well over 275 kilograms (600 pounds).

Three Phases of Energy Metabolism There are three phases of energy metabolism (the chem- ical changes by which energy is made available for an

organism’s use): the cephalic phase, the absorptive phase, and the fasting phase. The cephalic phase is the preparatory phase; it often begins with the sight, smell, or even just the thought of food, and it ends when the food starts to be absorbed into the bloodstream. The absorptive phase is the period during which the energy absorbed into the bloodstream from the meal is meet- ing the body’s immediate energy needs. The fasting phase is the period during which all of the unstored en- ergy from the previous meal has been used and the body is withdrawing energy from its reserves to meet its immediate energy requirements; it ends with the begin- ning of the next cephalic phase. During periods of rapid weight gain, people often go directly from one absorp- tive phase into the next cephalic phase, without experi- encing an intervening fasting phase.

The flow of energy during the three phases of energy metabolism is controlled by two pancreatic hormones: insulin and glucagon. During the cephalic and absorptive phases, the pancreas releases a great deal of insulin into the bloodstream and very little glucagon. Insulin does three things: (1) It promotes the use of glucose as the pri- mary source of energy by the body. (2) It promotes the conversion of bloodborne fuels to forms that can be stored: glucose to glycogen and fat, and amino acids to proteins. (3) It promotes the storage of glycogen in liver and muscle, fat in adipose tissue, and proteins in muscle. In short, the function of insulin during the cephalic phase is to lower the levels of bloodborne fuels, primarily glucose, in anticipation of the impending influx; and its function during the absorptive phase is to minimize the increasing levels of bloodborne fuels by utilizing and storing them.

In contrast to the cephalic and absorptive phases, the fasting phase is characterized by high blood levels of glucagon and low levels of insulin. Without high levels of insulin, glucose has difficulty entering most body cells; thus, glucose stops being the body’s primary fuel. In effect, this saves the body’s glucose for the brain, because insulin is not required for glucose to enter most brain cells. The low levels of insulin also promote the conversion of glycogen and protein to glucose. (The conversion of protein to glucose is called gluconeogenesis.)

On the other hand, the high levels of fasting-phase glucagon promote the release of free fatty acids from adi- pose tissue and their use as the body’s primary fuel. The high glucagon levels also stimulate the conversion of free fatty acids to ketones, which are used by muscles as a source of energy during the fasting phase. After a pro- longed period without food, however, the brain also starts to use ketones, thus further conserving the body’s re- sources of glucose.

Figure 12.3 summarizes the major metabolic events as- sociated with the three phases of energy metabolism.

30112.1 ■ Digestion, Energy Storage, and Energy Utilization

Fat in adipose tissue (85%)

Protein in muscle (14.5%)

Glycogen in muscle and liver (0.5%)

FIGURE 12.2 Distribution of stored energy in an average person.

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12.2 Theories of Hunger and Eating: Set Points versus Positive Incentives

One of the main difficulties I have in teaching the funda- mentals of hunger, eating, and body weight regulation is the set-point assumption. Although it dominates most people’s thinking about hunger and eating (Assanand, Pinel, & Lehman, 1998a, 1998b), whether they realize it or not, it is inconsistent with the bulk of the evidence. What exactly is the set-point assumption?

Set-Point Assumption Most people attribute hunger (the motivation to eat) to the presence of an energy deficit, and they view eating as the means by which the energy resources of the body are returned to their optimal level—that is, to the energy set point. Figure 12.4 summarizes this set-point assumption. After a meal (a bout of eating), a person’s energy resources are assumed to be near their set point and to decline there- after as the body uses energy to fuel its physiological processes. When the level of the body’s energy resources falls far enough below the set point, a person becomes motivated by hunger to initiate another meal. The meal continues, ac- cording to the set-point assumption, until the energy level

302 Chapter 12 ■ Hunger, Eating, and Health

Cephalic Phase Preparatory phase, which is initiated by the sight, smell, or expectation of food

Absorptive Phase Nutrients from a meal meeting the body’s immediate energy requirements, with the excess being stored

Fasting Phase Energy being withdrawn from stores to meet the body’s immediate needs

Promotes • Utilization of blood glucose as a source

of energy • Conversion of excess glucose to

glycogen and fat • Conversion of amino acids to proteins • Storage of glycogen in liver and muscle,

fat in adipose tissue, and protein in muscle

Inhibits • Conversion of glycogen, fat, and protein

into directly utilizable fuels (glucose, free fatty acids, and ketones)

Promotes • Conversion of fats to free fatty acids

and the utilization of free fatty acids as a source of energy

• Conversion of glycogen to glucose, free fatty acids to ketones, and protein to glucose

Inhibits • Utilization of glucose by the body but

not by the brain • Conversion of glucose to glycogen and

fat, and amino acids to protein • Storage of fat in adipose tissue

Glucagon levels low

Insulin levels high

Glucagon levels high

Insulin levels low

FIGURE 12.3 The major events associated with the three phases of energy metabolism: the cephalic, absorptive, and fasting phases.

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returns to its set point and the person feels satiated (no longer hungry).

Set-point models assume that hunger and eating work in much the same way as a thermostat- regulated heating system in a cool climate. The heater increases the house temperature until it reaches its set point (the thermo- stat setting). The heater then shuts off, and the temperature of the house gradually de- clines until it becomes low enough to turn the heater back on. All set-point systems have three components: a set- point mechanism, a detector mechanism, and an effector mechanism. The set-point mechanism defines the set point, the detector mechanism detects deviations from the set point, and the effector mechanism acts to eliminate the deviations. For example, the set-point, detector, and ef- fector mechanisms of a heating system are the thermo- stat, the thermometer, and the heater, respectively.

All set-point systems are negative feedback systems— systems in which feedback from changes in one direction elicit compensatory effects in the opposite direction. Negative feedback systems are common in mammals be- cause they act to maintain homeostasis—a stable internal environment—which is critical for mammals’ survival (see Wenning, 1999). Set-point systems combine negative feedback with a set point to keep an internal environment fixed at the prescribed point. Set-point systems seemed necessary when the adult human brain was assumed to be immutable: Because the brain couldn’t change, energy re- sources had to be highly regulated. However, we now know that the adult human brain is plastic and capable of considerable adaptation. Thus, there is no longer a logical imperative for the set-point regulation of eating. Through- out this chapter, you will need to put aside your precon- ceptions and base your thinking about hunger and eating entirely on the empirical evidence.

Glucostatic and Lipostatic Set-Point Theories of Hunger and Eating In the 1940s and 1950s, researchers working under the as- sumption that eating is regulated by some type of set- point system speculated about the nature of the regulation. Several researchers suggested that eating is

regulated by a system that is designed to maintain a blood glucose set point—the idea being that we become hungry when our blood glucose levels drop significantly below their set point and that we become satiated when eating returns our blood glucose levels to their set point. The various versions of this theory are collectively referred to as the glucostatic theory. It seemed to make good sense that the main purpose of eating is to defend a blood glu- cose set point, because glucose is the brain’s primary fuel.

The lipostatic theory is another set-point theory that was proposed in various forms in the 1940s and 1950s. According to this theory, every person has a set point for body fat, and deviations from this set point produce com- pensatory adjustments in the level of eating that return levels of body fat to their set point. The most frequently cited support for the theory is the fact that the body weights of adults stay relatively constant.

The glucostatic and lipostatic theories were viewed as complementary, not mutually exclusive. The glucostatic theory was thought to account for meal initiation and ter- mination, whereas the lipostatic theory was thought to account for long-term regulation. Thus, the dominant view in the 1950s was that eating is regulated by the inter- action between two set-point systems: a short-term glu- costatic system and a long-term lipostatic system. The simplicity of these 1950s theories is appealing. Remark- ably, they are still being presented as the latest word in some textbooks; perhaps you have encountered them.

Problems with Set-Point Theories of Hunger and Eating Set-point theories of hunger and eating have several seri- ous weaknesses (see de Castro & Plunkett, 2002). You have already learned one fact that undermines these the- ories: There is an epidemic of obesity and overweight,

30312.2 ■ Theories of Hunger and Eating: Set Points versus Positive Incentives

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which should not occur if eating is regulated by a set point. Let’s look at three more major weaknesses of set-

point theories of hunger and eating.

● First, set-point theories of hunger and eating are in- consistent with basic eating-related evolutionary pressures as we understand them. The major eating- related problem faced by our ancestors was the incon-

sistency and unpredictability of the food supply. Thus, in order to survive, it was im- portant for them to eat large quantities of

good food when it was available so that calories could be banked in the form of body fat. Any ancestor— human or otherwise—that stopped feeling hungry as soon as immediate energy needs were met would not have survived the first hard winter or prolonged drought. For any warm-blooded species to survive under natural conditions, it needs a hunger and eating system that prevents energy deficits, rather than one that merely responds to them once they have devel- oped. From this perspective, it is difficult to imagine how a set-point hunger and feeding system could have evolved in mammals (see Pinel, Assanand, & Lehman, 2000).

● Second, major predictions of the set-point theories of hunger and eating have not been confirmed. Early studies seemed to support the set-point theories by showing that large reductions in body fat, produced by starvation, or large reductions in blood glucose, pro- duced by insulin injections, induce increases in eating in laboratory animals. The problem is that reductions in blood glucose of the magnitude needed to reliably induce eating rarely occur naturally. Indeed, as you have already learned in this chapter, about 65% of U.S. adults have a significant excess of fat deposits when they begin a meal. Conversely, efforts to reduce meal size by having subjects consume a high-calorie drink before eating have been largely unsuccessful; indeed, beliefs about the caloric content of a premeal drink often influence the size of a subsequent meal more than does its actual caloric content (see Lowe, 1993).

● Third, set-point theories of hunger and eating are de- ficient because they fail to recognize the major influ- ences on hunger and eating of such important factors as taste, learning, and social influences. To convince yourself of the importance of these factors, pause for a minute and imagine the sight, smell, and taste of your favorite food. Perhaps it is a succulent morsel of lobster meat covered with melted garlic butter, a piece of chocolate cheesecake, or a plate of sizzling home- made french fries. Are you starting to feel a bit hun- gry? If the homemade french fries—my personal weakness—were sitting in front of you right now, wouldn’t you reach out and have one, or maybe the whole plateful? Have you not on occasion felt discomfort

after a large main course, only to polish off a substan- tial dessert? The usual positive answers to these ques- tions lead unavoidably to the conclusion that hunger and eating are not rigidly controlled by deviations from energy set points.

Positive-Incentive Perspective The inability of set-point theories to account for the basic phenomena of eating and hunger led to the development of an alternative theoretical perspective (see Berridge, 2004). The central assertion of this perspective, com- monly referred to as positive-incentive theory, is that humans and other animals are not normally driven to eat by internal energy deficits but are drawn to eat by the an- ticipated pleasure of eating—the anticipated pleasure of a behavior is called its positive-incentive value (see Bolles, 1980; Booth, 1981; Collier, 1980; Rolls, 1981; Toates, 1981). There are several different positive-incentive theo- ries, and I refer generally to all of them as the positive- incentive perspective.

The major tenet of the positive-incentive perspective on eating is that eating is controlled in much the same way as sexual behavior: We engage in sexual behavior not because we have an internal deficit, but because we have evolved to crave it. The evolutionary pressures of unexpected food shortages have shaped us and all other warm-blooded an- imals, who need a continuous supply of energy to main- tain their body temperatures, to take advantage of good food when it is present and eat it. According to the positive- incentive perspective, it is the presence of good food, or the anticipation of it, that normally makes us hungry, not an energy deficit.

According to the positive-incentive perspective, the de- gree of hunger you feel at any particular time depends on the interaction of all the factors that influence the positive- incentive value of eating (see Palmiter, 2007). These in- clude the following: the flavor of the food you are likely to consume, what you have learned about the effects of this food either from eating it previously or from other peo- ple, the amount of time since you last ate, the type and quantity of food in your gut, whether or not other people are present and eating, whether or not your blood glucose levels are within the normal range. This partial list illus- trates one strength of the positive-incentive perspective. Unlike set-point theories, positive-incentive theories do not single out one factor as the major determinant of hunger and ignore the others. Instead, they acknowledge that many factors interact to determine a person’s hunger at any time, and they suggest that this interaction occurs through the influence of these various factors on the positive-incentive value of eating (see Cabanac, 1971).

In this section, you learned that most people think about hunger and eating in terms of energy set points and

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were introduced to an alternative way of thinking—the positive-incentive perspective. Which way is correct? If you are like most people, you have an attachment to familiar ways of thinking and a resistance to new ones. Try to put this tendency aside and base your views about this impor- tant issue entirely on the evidence.

You have already learned about some of the major weaknesses of strict set-point theories of hunger and eat- ing. The next section describes some of the things that biopsychological research has taught us about hunger and eating. As you progress through the section, notice the su- periority of the positive-incentive theories over set-point theories in accounting for the basic facts.

12.3 Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat

This section describes major factors that commonly deter- mine what we eat, when we eat, and how much we eat. No- tice that energy deficits are not included among these factors. Although major energy deficits clearly increase hunger and eating, they are not a common factor in the eating behavior of people like us, who live in food-replete societies. Although you may believe that your body is short of energy just before a meal, it is not. This miscon- ception is one that is addressed in this section. Also, notice how research on nonhumans has played an important role in furthering understanding of human eating.

Factors That Determine What We Eat Certain tastes have a high positive-incentive value for vir- tually all members of a species. For example, most hu- mans have a special fondness for sweet, fatty, and salty tastes. This species-typical pattern of human taste prefer- ences is adaptive because in nature sweet and fatty tastes

are typically characteristic of high-energy foods that are rich in vitamins and miner- als, and salty tastes are characteristic of

sodium-rich foods. In contrast, bitter tastes, for which most humans have an aversion, are often associated with toxins. Superimposed on our species-typical taste prefer- ences and aversions, each of us has the ability to learn specific taste preferences and aversions (see Rozin & Shulkin, 1990).

Learned Taste Preferences and Aversions Animals learn to prefer tastes that are followed by an infusion of calories, and they learn to avoid tastes that are followed by illness (e.g., Baker & Booth, 1989; Lucas & Sclafani, 1989; Sclafani, 1990). In addition, humans and other animals learn what to eat from their conspecifics. For example,

rats learn to prefer flavors that they experience in mother’s milk and those that they smell on the breath of other rats (see Galef, 1995, 1996; Galef, Whishkin, & Bielavska, 1997). Similarly, in humans, many food prefer- ences are culturally specific—for example, in some cul- tures, various nontoxic insects are considered to be a delicacy. Galef and Wright (1995) have shown that rats reared in groups, rather than in isolation, are more likely to learn to eat a healthy diet.

Learning to Eat Vitamins and Minerals How do an- imals select a diet that provides all of the vitamins and minerals they need? To answer this question, researchers have studied how dietary deficiencies influence diet selec- tion. Two patterns of results have emerged: one for sodium and one for the other essential vitamins and min- erals. When an animal is deficient in sodium, it develops an immediate and compelling preference for the taste of sodium salt (see Rowland, 1990). In contrast, an animal that is deficient in some vitamin or mineral other than sodium must learn to consume foods that are rich in the missing nutrient by experiencing their positive effects; this is because vitamins and minerals other than sodium normally have no detectable taste in food. For example, rats maintained on a diet deficient in thiamine (vitamin B1) develop an aversion to the taste of that diet; and if they are offered two new diets, one deficient in thiamine and one rich in thiamine, they often develop a preference for the taste of the thiamine-rich diet over the ensuing days, as it becomes associated with improved health.

If we, like rats, are capable of learning to select diets that are rich in the vitamins and minerals we need, why are dietary deficiencies so prevalent in our society? One reason is that, in order to maximize profits, manufacturers produce foods that have the tastes we prefer but lack many of the nutrients we need to maintain our health. (Even rats prefer chocolate chip cookies to nutritionally complete rat chow.) The second reason is illustrated by the classic study of Harris and associates (1933). When thiamine-deficient rats were offered two new diets, one with thiamine and one without, almost all of them learned to eat the complete diet and avoid the deficient one. However, when they were offered ten new diets, only one of which contained the badly needed thiamine, few developed a preference for the complete diet. The number of different substances, both nutritious and not, con- sumed each day by most people in industrialized societies is immense, and this makes it difficult, if not impossible, for their bodies to learn which foods are beneficial and which are not.

There is not much about nutrition in this chapter: Although it is critically important to eat a nutritious diet, nutrition seems to have little direct effect on our feelings of hunger. However, while I am on the topic, I would like to direct you to a good source of information

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about nutrition that could have a positive effect on your health: Some popular books on nutrition are dan-

gerous, and even governments, inordinately influenced by economic considerations and special-interest groups, often do not provide the best nutritional advice (see Nestle, 2003). For sound research-based advice on nutrition, check out an article by Willett and Stampfer (2003) and the book on which it is based, Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy by Willett, Skerrett, and Giovannucci (2001).

Factors That Influence When We Eat Collier and his colleagues (see Collier, 1986) found that most mammals choose to eat many small meals (snacks)

each day if they have ready access to a continuous supply of food. Only when there are physical costs involved in initiat-

ing meals—for example, having to travel a considerable distance—does an animal opt for a few large meals.

The number of times humans eat each day is influ- enced by cultural norms, work schedules, family routines, personal preferences, wealth, and a variety of other fac- tors. However, in contrast to the usual mammalian pref- erence, most people, particularly those living in family groups, tend to eat a few large meals each day at regular times. Interestingly, each person’s regular mealtimes are the very same times at which that person is likely to feel most hungry; in fact, many people experience attacks of malaise (headache, nausea, and an inability to concen- trate) when they miss a regularly scheduled meal.

Premeal Hunger I am sure that you have experienced attacks of premeal hunger. Subjectively, they seem to pro- vide compelling support for set-point theories. Your body seems to be crying out: “I need more energy. I cannot function without it. Please feed me.” But things are not al- ways the way they seem. Woods has straightened out the confusion (see Woods, 1991; Woods & Ramsay, 2000; Woods & Strubbe, 1994).

According to Woods, the key to understanding hunger is to appreciate that eating meals stresses the body. Before a meal, the body’s energy reserves are in reasonable homeostatic balance; then, as a meal is consumed, there is a homeostasis-disturbing influx of fuels into the bloodstream. The body does what it can to defend its homeostasis. At the first indication that a person will soon be eating—for example, when the usual mealtime approaches—the body enters the cephalic phase and takes steps to soften the impact of the impending homeostasis- disturbing influx by releasing insulin into the blood and thus reducing blood glucose. Woods’s message is that the strong, unpleasant feelings of hunger that you may expe- rience at mealtimes are not cries from your body for food; they are the sensations of your body’s preparations for the expected homeostasis-disturbing meal. Mealtime

hunger is caused by the expectation of food, not by an en- ergy deficit.

As a high school student, I ate lunch at exactly 12:05 every day and was overwhelmed by hunger as the time approached. Now, my eating schedule is different, and I never experience noontime hunger pangs; I now get hungry just before the time at which I usually eat. Have you had a similar experience?

Pavlovian Conditioning of Hunger In a classic series of Pavlovian conditioning experiments on laboratory rats, Weingarten (1983, 1984, 1985) provided strong sup- port for the view that hunger is often caused by the expec- tation of food, not by an energy deficit. During the conditioning phase of one of his experiments, Weingarten presented rats with six meals per day at irregular inter- vals, and he signaled the impending delivery of each meal with a buzzer-and-light conditional stimulus. This condi- tioning procedure was continued for 11 days. Through- out the ensuing test phase of the experiment, the food was continuously available. Despite the fact that the subjects were never deprived during the test phase, the rats started to eat each time the buzzer and light were presented— even if they had recently completed a meal.

Factors That Influence How Much We Eat The motivational state that causes us to stop eating a meal when there is food remaining is satiety. Satiety mecha- nisms play a major role in determining how much we eat.

Satiety Signals As you will learn in the next section of the chapter, food in the gut and glucose entering the blood can induce satiety signals, which inhibit subse- quent consumption. These signals depend on both the volume and the nutritive density (calories per unit vol- ume) of the food.

The effects of nutritive density have been demon- strated in studies in which laboratory rats have been maintained on a single diet. Once a stable baseline of consumption has been estab- lished, the nutritive density of the diet is changed. Some rats learn to adjust the volume of food they consume to keep their caloric intake and body weights relatively stable. However, there are major limits to this adjustment: Rats rarely increase their intake suffi- ciently to maintain their body weights if the nutritive density of their conventional laboratory feed is reduced by more than 50% or if there are major changes in the diet’s palatability.

Sham Eating The study of sham eating indicates that satiety signals from the gut or blood are not necessary to terminate a meal. In sham-eating experiments, food is chewed and swallowed by the subject; but rather than

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passing down the subject’s esophagus into the stomach, it passes out of the body through an implanted tube (see Figure 12.5).

Because sham eating adds no energy to the body, set-point theories predict that all sham-eaten meals should be huge. But this is not the case. Weingarten and Kulikovsky (1989) sham fed rats one of two differently flavored diets: one that the rats had naturally eaten many times before and one that they had never eaten before. The first sham meal of the rats that had previously eaten the diet was the same size as the previously eaten meals of that diet; then, on ensuing days they began to sham eat more and more (see Figure 12.6). In contrast, the rats that were presented with the unfamiliar diet

sham ate large quantities right from the start. Weingarten and Kulikovsky concluded that the amount we eat is in- fluenced largely by our previous experience with the par- ticular food’s physiological effects, not by the immediate effect of the food on the body.

Appetizer Effect and Satiety The next time you at- tend a dinner party, you may experience a major weak- ness of the set-point theory of satiety. If appetizers are served, you will notice that small amounts of food consumed before a meal actually in- crease hunger rather than reducing it. This is the appetizer effect. Presumably, it occurs because the con- sumption of a small amount of food is particularly effec- tive in eliciting cephalic-phase responses.

Serving Size and Satiety Many experiments have shown that the amount of consumption is influenced by serving size (Geier, Rozin, & Doros, 2006). The larger the servings, the more we tend to eat. There is even evidence that we tend to eat more when we eat with larger spoons.

Social Influences and Satiety Feelings of satiety may also depend on whether we are eating alone or with others. Redd and de Castro (1992) found that their sub- jects consumed 60% more when eating with others. Laboratory rats also eat substantially more when fed in groups.

30712.3 ■ Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat

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In humans, social factors have also been shown to reduce consumption. Many people eat less than they would like in order to achieve their society’s ideal of slenderness, and others refrain from eating large amounts in front of oth- ers so as not to appear gluttonous. Unfortunately, in our culture, females are influenced by such pressures more than males are, and, as you will learn later in the chapter, some develop serious eating disorders as a result.

Sensory-Specific Satiety The number of different tastes available at each meal has a major effect on meal size. For example, the effect of offering a laboratory rat a varied diet of highly palatable foods—a cafeteria diet—is dramatic. Adults rats that were offered bread and choco- late in addition to their usual laboratory diet increased their average intake of calories by 84%, and after 120 days they had increased their average body weights by 49% (Rogers & Blundell, 1980). The spectacular effects of cafe- teria diets on consumption and body weight clearly run counter to the idea that satiety is rigidly controlled by in- ternal energy set points.

The effect on meal size of cafeteria diets results from the fact that satiety is to a large degree sensory-specific. As you eat one food, the positive-incentive value of all foods de- clines slightly, but the positive-incentive value of that par- ticular food plummets. As a result, you soon become satiated on that food and stop eating it. However, if another food is offered to you, you will often begin eating again.

In one study of sensory-specific satiety (Rolls et al., 1981), human subjects were asked to rate the palatability of eight different foods, and then they ate a meal of one of them. After the meal, they were asked to rate the palata- bility of the eight foods once again, and it was found that their rating of the food they had just eaten had declined substantially more than had their ratings of the other seven foods. Moreover, when the subjects were offered an unexpected second meal, they consumed most of it unless it was the same as the first.

Booth (1981) asked subjects to rate the momentary pleasure produced by the flavor, the smell, the sight, or just the thought of various foods at different times after consuming a large, high-calorie, high-carbohydrate liquid meal. There was an immediate sensory-specific decrease in the palatability of foods of the same or similar flavor as soon as the liquid meal was consumed. This was followed by a general decrease in the palatability of all substances about 30 minutes later. Thus, it appears that signals from taste receptors produce an immediate decline in the positive-incentive value of similar tastes and that signals associated with the postingestive consequences of eating produce a general decrease in the positive-incentive value of all foods.

Rolls (1990) suggested that sensory-specific satiety has two kinds of effects: relatively brief effects that influence the selection of foods within a single meal, and relatively enduring effects that influence the selection of foods from

meal to meal. Some foods seem to be relatively immune to long-lasting sensory-specific satiety; foods such as rice, bread, potatoes, sweets, and green salads can be eaten al- most every day with only a slight decline in their palata- bility (Rolls, 1986).

The phenomenon of sensory-specific satiety has two adaptive consequences. First, it encourages the consump- tion of a varied diet. If there were no sensory-specific sati- ety, a person would tend to eat her or his preferred food and nothing else, and the re- sult would be malnutrition. Second, sensory- specific satiety encourages animals that have access to a variety of foods to eat a lot; an animal that has eaten its fill of one food will often begin eating again if it encoun- ters a different one (Raynor & Epstein, 2001). This en- courages animals to take full advantage of times of abundance, which are all too rare in nature.

This section has introduced you to several important properties of hunger and eating. How many support the set-point assump- tion, and how many are inconsistent with it?

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Are you ready to move on to the discussion of the physiol- ogy of hunger and satiety in the following section? Find out by completing the following sentences with the most appropriate terms. The correct answers are provided at the end of the exercise. Before proceeding, review material related to your incorrect answers and omissions.

1. The primary function of the ______ is to serve as a storage reservoir for undigested food.

2. Most of the absorption of nutrients into the body takes place through the wall of the ______, or upper intestine.

3. The phase of energy metabolism that is triggered by the expectation of food is the ______ phase.

4. During the absorptive phase, the pancreas releases a great deal of ______ into the bloodstream.

5. During the fasting phase, the primary fuels of the body are ______.

6. During the fasting phase, the primary fuel of the brain is ______.

7. The three components of a set-point system are a set-point mechanism, a detector, and an ______.

8. The theory that hunger and satiety are regulated by a blood glucose set point is the ______ theory.

9. Evidence suggests that hunger is greatly influenced by the current ______ value of food.

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10. Most humans have a preference for sweet, fatty, and ______ tastes.

11. There are two mechanisms by which we learn to eat diets containing essential vitamins and minerals: one mechanism for ______ and another mechanism for the rest.

12. Satiety that is specific to the particular foods that produce it is called ______ satiety.

Do the observed reductions in blood glucose before a meal lend support to the glucostatic theory of hunger? I think not, for five reasons:

● It is a simple matter to construct a situation in which drops in blood glucose levels do not precede eating (e.g., Strubbe & Steffens, 1977)—for example, by unex- pectedly serving a food with a high positive-incentive value.

● The usual premeal decreases in blood glucose seem to be a response to the intention to start eating, not the other way round. The premeal decreases in blood glu- cose are typically preceded by increases in blood in- sulin levels, which indicates that the decreases do not reflect gradually declining energy reserves but are actively produced by an increase in blood levels of insulin (see Figure 12.7).

● If an expected meal is not served, blood glucose levels soon return to their previous homeostatic level.

● The glucose levels in the extracellular fluids that sur- round CNS neurons stay relatively constant, even when blood glucose levels drop (see Seeley & Woods, 2003).

● Injections of insulin do not reliably induce eating un- less the injections are sufficiently great to reduce blood glucose levels by 50% (see Rowland, 1981), and large premeal infusions of glucose do not suppress eating (see Geiselman, 1987).

Myth of Hypothalamic Hunger and Satiety Centers In the 1950s, experiments on rats seemed to suggest that eating behavior is controlled by two different re- gions of the hypothalamus: satiety by the ventromedial

30912.4 ■ Physiological Research on Hunger and Satiety

Scan Your Brainanswers: (1) stomach, (2) duodenum, (3) cephalic, (4) insulin, (5) free fatty acids, (6) glucose, (7) effector, (8) glucostatic, (9) positive- incentive, (10) salty, (11) sodium, (12) sensory-specific.

12.4 Physiological Research on Hunger and Satiety

Now that you have been introduced to set-point theories, the positive-incentive perspective, and some basic factors that affect why, when, and how much we eat, this section introduces you to five prominent lines of research on the physiology of hunger and satiety.

Role of Blood Glucose Levels in Hunger and Satiety As I have already explained, efforts to link blood glucose levels to eating have been largely unsuccessful. However, there was a renewed interest in the role of glucose in the regulation of eating in the 1990s, following the develop- ment of methods of continually monitoring blood glucose levels. In the classic experiment of Campfield and Smith (1990), rats were housed individu- ally, with free access to a mixed diet and water, and their blood glucose levels were continually monitored via a chronic intravenous catheter (i.e., a hypodermic needle located in a vein). In this situation, baseline blood glucose levels rarely fluctuated more than 2%. However, about 10 minutes before a meal was initiated, the levels suddenly dropped about 8% (see Figure 12.7).

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hypothalamus (VMH) and feeding by the lateral hypo- thalamus (LH)—see Figure 12.8. This theory turned out to be wrong, but it stimulated several important discoveries.

VMH Satiety Center In 1940, it was discovered that large bilateral electrolytic lesions to the ventromedial hypothala- mus produce hyperphagia (excessive eating) and extreme obesity in rats (Hetherington & Ranson, 1940). This VMH syndrome has two different phases: dynamic and static. The dynamic phase, which begins as soon as the subject regains consciousness after the operation, is characterized by several weeks of grossly excessive eating and rapid weight gain. However, after that, consumption gradually declines to a level that is just sufficient to maintain a stable level of obe- sity; this marks the beginning of the static phase. Figure 12.9 illustrates the weight gain and food intake of an adult rat with bilateral VMH lesions.

The most important feature of the static phase of the VMH syndrome is that the animal maintains its new

body weight. If a rat in the static phase is deprived of food until it has lost a substantial amount of weight, it will re- gain the lost weight once the deprivation ends; conversely, if it is made to gain weight by forced feeding, it will lose the excess weight once the forced feeding is curtailed.

Paradoxically, despite their prodigious levels of con- sumption, VMH-lesioned rats in some ways seem less hungry than unlesioned controls. Although VMH-lesioned rats eat much more than normal rats when palatable food is readily available, they are less willing to work for it (Teitelbaum, 1957) or to consume it if it is slightly un- palatable (Miller, Bailey, & Stevenson, 1950). Weingarten, Chang, and Jarvie (1983) showed that the finicky eating of VMH-lesioned rats is a consequence of their obesity, not a primary effect of their lesion; they are no less likely to consume unpalatable food than are unlesioned rats of equal obesity.

LH Feeding Center In 1951,Anand and Brobeck reported that bilateral electrolytic lesions to the lateral hypothala- mus produce aphagia—a complete cessation of eating. Even rats that were first made hyperphagic by VMH le- sions were rendered aphagic by the addition of LH le- sions. Anand and Brobeck concluded that the lateral region of the hypothalamus is a feeding center. Teitelbaum and Epstein (1962) subsequently discovered two impor- tant features of the LH syndrome. First, they found that the aphagia was accompanied by adipsia—a complete cessa- tion of drinking. Second, they found that LH-lesioned rats partially recover if they are kept alive by tube feeding. First, they begin to eat wet, palatable foods, such as chocolate chip cookies soaked in milk, and eventually they will eat dry food pellets if water is concurrently available.

Reinterpretation of the Effects of VMH and LH Lesions The theory that the VMH is a satiety center crumbled in the face of two lines of evidence. One of these lines showed that the primary role of the hypothalamus is the regulation of energy metabolism, not the regulation of eating. The initial interpretation was that VMH-lesioned animals become obese because they overeat; however, the evidence suggests the converse—that they overeat because they become obese. Bilateral VMH le- sions increase blood insulin levels, which increases lipogenesis (the pro- duction of body fat) and decreases lipolysis (the break- down of body fat to utilizable forms of energy)—see Powley et al. (1980). Both are likely to be the result of the increases in insulin levels that occur following the lesion. Because the calories ingested by VMH-lesioned rats are converted to fat at a high rate, the rats must keep eating to ensure that they have enough calories in their blood to meet their immediate energy requirements (e.g., Hustvedt & Løvø, 1972); they are like misers who run to the bank each time they make a bit of money and deposit it in a sav- ings account from which withdrawals cannot be made.

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FIGURE 12.8 The locations in the rat brain of the ventro- medial hypothalamus and the lateral hypothalamus.

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The second line of evidence that undermined the theory of a VMH satiety center has shown that many of the effects of VMH lesions are not at- tributable to VMH damage. A large fiber bundle, the ventral noradrener- gic bundle, courses past the VMH and is thus inevitably damaged by large electrolytic VMH lesions; in particu- lar, fibers that project from the nearby paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus are damaged (see Figure 12.10). Bilateral lesions of the noradrenergic bundle (e.g., Gold et al., 1977) or the paraventricular nu- clei (Leibowitz, Hammer, & Chang, 1981) produce hyperphagia and obe- sity, just as VMH lesions do.

Most of the evidence against the notion that the LH is a feeding cen-

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ter has come from a thorough analysis of the effects of bi- lateral LH lesions. Early research focused exclusively on the aphagia and adipsia that are produced by LH lesions, but subsequent research has shown that LH lesions pro- duce a wide range of severe motor disturbances and a general lack of responsiveness to sensory input (of which food and drink are but two examples). Consequently, the idea that the LH is a center specifically dedicated to feed- ing no longer warrants serious consideration.

Role of the Gastrointestinal Tract in Satiety One of the most influential early studies of hunger was published by Cannon and Washburn in 1912. It was a perfect collaboration: Cannon had the ideas, and Wash- burn had the ability to swallow a balloon. First, Washburn swallowed an empty balloon tied to the end of a thin tube. Then, Cannon pumped some air into the balloon and connected the end of the tube to a water-filled glass U-tube so that Washburn’s stomach contractions pro- duced a momentary increase in the level of the water at

FIGURE 12.10 Location of the paraventricular nucleus in the rat hypothalamus. Note that the section through the hypothala- mus is slightly different than the one in Figure 12.8.

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the other end of the U-tube. Washburn re- ported a “pang” of hunger each time that a large stomach contraction was recorded (see Figure 12.11).

Cannon and Washburn’s finding led to the theory that hunger is the feeling of contractions caused by an empty stomach, whereas satiety is the feeling of stomach dis- tention. However, support for this theory and interest in the role of the gastroin- testinal tract in hunger and satiety quickly waned with the discovery that human pa- tients whose stomach had been surgically removed and whose esophagus had been hooked up directly to their duodenum (the first segment of the small intestine, which normally carries food away from the stomach) continued to report feelings of hunger and satiety and continued to maintain their normal body weight by eating more meals of smaller size.

In the 1980s, there was a resurgence of interest in the role of the gastrointestinal tract in eating. It was stimulated by a se- ries of experiments that indicated that the gastrointestinal tract is the source of satiety signals. For example, Koopmans (1981) transplanted an extra stomach and length of intes- tine into rats and then joined the major arteries and veins of the implants to the recipients’ circulatory systems (see Figure 12.12). Koopmans found that food injected into the transplanted stomach and kept there by a noose around the pyloric sphincter decreased eating in propor- tion to both its caloric content and volume. Because the transplanted stomach had no functional nerves, the gas- trointestinal satiety signal had to be reaching the brain through the blood. And because nutrients are not ab- sorbed from the stomach, the bloodborne satiety signal could not have been a nutrient. It had to be some chemi- cal or chemicals that were released from the stomach in response to the caloric value and volume of the food— which leads us nicely into the next subsection.

Hunger and Satiety Peptides Soon after the discovery that the stomach and other parts of the gastrointestinal tract release chemical signals to the brain, evidence began to accumulate that these chemicals

were peptides, short chains of amino acids that can func- tion as hormones and neurotransmitters (see Fukuhara et al., 2005). Ingested food interacts with receptors in the gastrointestinal tract and in so doing causes the tract to release peptides into the bloodstream. In 1973, Gibbs, Young, and Smith injected one of these gut peptides, cholecystokinin (CCK), into hungry rats and found that they ate smaller meals. This led to the hypothesis that circulating gut peptides provide the brain with information about the quantity and nature of food in the gastrointestinal tract and that this information plays a role in satiety (see Bad- man & Flier, 2005; Flier, 2006).

There has been considerable support for the hypothesis that peptides can function as satiety signals (see Gao & Horvath, 2007; Ritter, 2004). Several gut peptides have been shown to bind to receptors in the brain, particularly in areas of the hypothalamus involved in energy metabolism, and a dozen or so (e.g., CCK, bombesin, glucagon, alpha- melanocyte-stimulating hormone, and somatostatin) have been reported to reduce food intake (see Batterham et al., 2006; Zhang et al., 2005). These have become known as satiety peptides (peptides that decrease appetite).

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In studying the appetite-reducing effects of peptides, researchers had to rule out the possibility that these ef- fects are not merely the consequence of illness (see Moran, 2004). Indeed, there is evidence that one pep- tide in particular, CCK, induces illness: CCK adminis- tered to rats after they have eaten an unfamiliar substance induces a conditioned taste aversion for that substance, and CCK induces nausea in human subjects. However, CCK reduces appetite and eating at doses substantially below those that are required to induce taste aversion in rats, and thus it qualifies as a legitimate satiety peptide.

Several hunger peptides (peptides that increase appetite) have also been discovered. These peptides tend to be syn- thesized in the brain, particularly in the hypothalamus. The most widely studied of these are neuropeptide Y, galanin, orexin-A, and ghrelin (e.g., Baird, Gray, & Fischer, 2006; Olszewski, Schiöth & Levine, 2008; Williams et al., 2004).

The discovery of the hunger and satiety peptides has had two major effects on the search for the neural mechanisms of hunger and satiety. First, the sheer number of these hunger and satiety peptides indicates

that the neural system that controls eating likely reacts to many different signals (Nogueiras & Tschöp, 2005; Schwartz & Azzara, 2004), not just to one or two (e.g., not just to glucose and fat). Second, the discovery that many of the hunger and satiety peptides have receptors in the hypothalamus has renewed interest in the role of the hypothalamus in hunger and eating (Gao & Horvath, 2007; Lam, Schwartz, & Rossetti, 2006; Luquet et al., 2005). This interest was further stimulated by the dis- covery that microinjection of gut peptides into some sites in the hypothalamus can have major effects on eat- ing. Still, there is a general acceptance that hypothalamic circuits are only one part of a much larger system (see Berthoud & Morrison, 2008; Cone, 2005).

Serotonin and Satiety The monoaminergic neurotransmitter serotonin is an- other chemical that plays a role in satiety. The initial evi- dence for this role came from a line of research in rats. In these studies, serotonin- produced satiety was found to have three major properties (see Blundell & Halford, 1998):

● It caused the rats to resist the powerful attraction of highly palatable cafeteria diets.

● It reduced the amount of food that was consumed during each meal rather than reducing the number of meals (see Clifton, 2000).

● It was associated with a shift in food preferences away from fatty foods.

This profile of effects suggested that serotonin might be useful in combating obesity in humans. Indeed, serotonin agonists (e.g., fenfluramine, dexfenfluramine, fluoxetine) have been shown to reduce hunger, eating, and body weight under some conditions (see Blundell & Halford, 1998). Later in this chapter, you will learn about the use of serotonin to treat human obesity (see De Vry & Schreiber, 2000).

Prader-Willi Syndrome: Patients with Insatiable Hunger Prader-Willi syndrome could prove critical in the discov- ery of the neural mechanisms of hunger and satiety (Goldstone, 2004). Individuals with Prader-Willi syn- drome, which results from an accident of chromosomal replication, experience insatiable hunger, little or no sati- ety, and an exceptionally slow metabolism. In short, the Prader-Willi patient acts as though he or she is starving. Other common physical and neurological symptoms in- clude weak muscles, small hands and feet, feeding diffi- culties in infancy, tantrums, compulsivity, and skin picking. If untreated, most patients become extremely obese, and they often die in early adulthood from dia- betes, heart disease, or other obesity-related disorders. Some have even died from gorging until their stomachs

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FIGURE 12.12 Transplantation of an extra stomach and length of intestine in a rat. Koopmans (1981) im- planted an extra stomach and length of intestine in each of his experimental subjects. He then connected the major blood vessels of the implanted stomachs to the circulatory systems of the recipients. Food injected into the extra stomach and kept there by a noose around the pyloric sphincter decreased eating in pro- portion to its volume and caloric value.

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split open. Fortunately, Miss A. was diagnosed in infancy and received excellent care, which kept her from becom- ing obese (Martin et al., 1998).

Prader-Willi Syndrome: The Case of Miss A.

Miss A. was born with little muscle tone. Because her sucking reflex was so weak, she was tube fed. By the time she was 2 years old, her hypotonia (below-normal muscle tone) had resolved itself, but a number of characteristic deformities and developmental delays began to appear.

At 31/2 years of age, Miss A. suddenly began to display a voracious appetite and quickly gained weight. Fortu- nately, her family maintained her on a low-calorie diet and kept all food locked away.

Miss A. is moderately retarded, and she suffers from psychiatric problems. Her major problem is her tendency to have tantrums any time anything changes in her envi- ronment (e.g., a substitute teacher at school). Thanks largely to her family and pediatrician, she has received ex- cellent care, which has minimized the complications that arise with Prader-Willi syndrome—most notably those related to obesity and its pathological effects.

Although the study of Prader-Willi syndrome has yet to provide any direct evidence about the neural mecha- nisms of hunger and eating, there has been a marked surge in its investigation. This increase has been stimu- lated by the recent identification of the genetic cause of the condition: an accident of reproduction that deletes or disrupts a section of chromosome 15 coming from the fa- ther. This information has provided clues about genetic factors in appetite.

12.5 Body Weight Regulation: Set Points versus Settling Points

One strength of set-point theories of eating is that they explain body weight regulation. You have already learned that set-point theories are largely inconsistent with the facts of eating, but how well do they account for the reg- ulation of body weight? Certainly, many people in our culture believe that body weight is regulated by a body-fat set point (Assanand, Pinel, & Lehman, 1998a, 1998b). They believe that when fat deposits are below a person’s set point, a person becomes hungrier and eats more, which results in a return of body-fat levels to that person’s set point; and, conversely, they believe that when fat de- posits are above a person’s set point, a person becomes less hungry and eats less, which results in a return of body-fat levels to their set point.

Set-Point Assumptions about Body Weight and Eating You have already learned that set-point theories do a poor job of explaining the characteristics of hunger and eating. Do they do a better job of accounting for the facts of body weight regulation? Let’s begin by looking at three lines of evidence that challenge fundamental aspects of many set- point theories of body weight regulation.

Variability of Body Weight The set-point model was expressly designed to explain why adult body weights re- main constant. Indeed, a set-point mechanism should make it virtually impossible for an adult to gain or lose large amounts of weight. Yet, many adults experience large and lasting changes in body weight (see Booth, 2004). Moreover, set-point thinking crumbles in the face of the epidemic of obesity that is currently sweeping fast- food societies (Rosenheck, 2008).

Set-point theories of body weight regulation suggest that the best method of maintaining a constant body weight is to eat each time there is a motivation to eat, be- cause, according to the theory, the main function of hunger is to defend the set point. However, many people avoid obesity only by resisting their urges to eat.

Set Points and Health One implication of set-point theories of body weight regulation is that each person’s set point is optimal for that person’s health—or at least not incompatible with good health. This is why popular psychologists commonly advise people to “listen to the wisdom of their bodies” and eat as much as they need to satisfy their hunger. Experimental results indicate that this common prescription for good health could not be further from the truth.

Two kinds of evidence suggest that typical ad libitum (free-feeding) levels of consumption are unhealthy (see Brownell & Rodin, 1994). First are the results of studies of humans who consume fewer calories than others. For ex- ample, people living on the Japanese island of Okinawa seemed to eat so few calories that their eating habits be- came a concern of health officials. When the health offi- cials took a closer look, here is what they found (see Kagawa, 1978). Adult Okinawans were found to consume, on average, 20% fewer calories than other adult Japanese, and Okinawan school children were found to consume 38% fewer calories than recommended by public health officials. It was somewhat surprising then that rates of morbidity and mortality and of all aging-related diseases were found to be substantially lower in Okinawa than in other parts of Japan, a country in which overall levels of caloric intake and obesity are far below Western norms. For example, the death rates from stroke, cancer, and heart disease in Okinawa were only 59%, 69%, and 59%, respectively, of those in the rest of Japan. Indeed, the pro- portion of Okinawans living to be over 100 years of age

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was up to 40 times greater than that of inhabitants of var- ious other regions of Japan.

The Okinawan study and the other studies that have reported major health benefits in humans who eat less (e.g., Manson et al., 1995; Meyer et al., 2006; Walford &

Walford, 1994) are not controlled experiments; therefore, they must be interpreted with caution. For ex-

ample, perhaps it is not simply the consumption of fewer calories that leads to health and longevity; per- haps in some cultures people who eat less tend to eat healthier diets.

Controlled experimental demonstrations in over a dozen different mammalian species, including monkeys (see Coleman et al., 2009), of the beneficial effects of calo-

rie restriction constitute the second kind of evidence that ad libitum levels of con- sumption are unhealthy. Fortunately, the

results of such controlled experiments do not present the same problems of interpretation as do the findings of the Okinawa study and other similar correlational studies in humans. In typical calorie-restriction experiments, one group of subjects is allowed to eat as much as they choose, while other groups of subjects have their caloric intake of the same diets substantially reduced (by between 25% and 65% in various studies). Results of such experiments have been remarkably consistent (see Bucci, 1992; Masoro, 1988; Weindruch, 1996; Weindruch & Walford, 1988): In experiment after experiment, substantial reductions in the caloric intake of balanced diets have improved nu- merous indices of health and increased longevity. For ex- ample, in one experiment (Weindruch et al., 1986), groups of mice had their caloric intake of a well-balanced commercial diet reduced by either 25%, 55%, or 65% after weaning. All levels of dietary restriction substantially improved health and increased longevity, but the benefits

were greatest in the mice whose intake was reduced the most. Those mice that con- sumed the least had the lowest incidence of

cancer, the best immune responses, and the greatest maxi- mum life span—they lived 67% longer than mice that ate as much as they liked. Evidence suggests that dietary restriction can have beneficial effects even if it is not initi- ated until later in life (Mair et al., 2003; Vaupel, Carey, & Christensen, 2003).

One important point about the results of the calorie- restriction experiments is that the health benefits of the restricted diets may not be entirely attributable to loss of body fat (see Weindruch, 1996). In some dietary restric- tion studies, the health of subjects has improved even if they did not reduce their body fat, and there are often no significant correlations between amount of weight loss and improvements in health. This suggests excessive en- ergy consumption, independent of fat accumulation, may accelerate aging with all its attendant health problems (Lane, Ingram, & Roth, 2002; Prolla & Mattson, 2001).

Remarkably, there is evidence that dietary restriction can be used to treat some neurological conditions. Caloric restriction has been shown to reduce seizure susceptibility in human epileptics (see Maalouf, Rho, & Mattson, 2008) and to improve memory in the elderly (Witte et al., 2009). Please stop and think about the impli- cations of all these findings about calorie restriction. How much do you eat?

Regulation of Body Weight by Changes in the Effi- ciency of Energy Utilization Implicit in many set- point theories is the premise that body weight is largely a function of how much a person eats. Of course, how much someone eats plays a role in his or her body weight, but it is now clear that the body controls its fat levels, to a large degree, by changing the efficiency with which it uses energy. As a person’s level of body fat declines, that person starts to use energy resources more efficiently, which lim- its further weight loss (see Martin, White, & Hulsey, 1991); conversely, weight gain is limited by a progressive decrease in the efficiency of energy utilization. Rothwell and Stock (1982) created a group of obese rats by main- taining them on a cafeteria diet, and they found that the resting level of energy expenditure in these obese rats was 45% greater than in control rats.

This point is illustrated by the progressively declining effectiveness of weight-loss programs. Initially, low-calorie diets produce substantial weight loss. But the rate of weight loss diminishes with each successive week on the diet, until an equilibrium is achieved and little or no fur- ther weight loss occurs. Most dieters are familiar with this disappointing trend. A similar effect occurs with weight- gain programs (see Figure 12.13 on page 316).

The mechanism by which the body adjusts the effi- ciency of its energy utilization in response to its levels of body fat has been termed diet-induced thermogenesis. Increases in the levels of body fat produce increases in body temperature, which require additional energy to maintain them—and decreases in the level of body fat have the opposite effects (see Lazar, 2008).

There are major differences among humans both in basal metabolic rate (the rate at which energy is utilized to maintain bodily processes when resting) and in the ability to adjust the metabolic rate in response to changes in the levels of body fat. We all know people who remain slim even though they eat gluttonously. However, the re- search on calorie-restricted diets suggests that these peo- ple may not eat with impunity: There may be a health cost to pay for overeating even in the absence of obesity.

Set Points and Settling Points in Weight Control The theory that eating is part of a system designed to de- fend a body-fat set point has long had its critics (see

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Booth, Fuller, & Lewis, 1981; Wirtshafter & Davis, 1977), but for many years their arguments were largely ignored and the set-point assumption ruled. This situa- tion has been changing: Several promi- nent reviews of research on hunger and weight regulation generally acknowledge that a strict set-point model cannot ac-

count for the facts of weight regulation, and they argue for a more

flexible model (see Berthoud, 2002; Mercer & Speakman, 2001; Woods et al., 2000). Because the body-fat set-point model still dominates the thinking of many people, I want to review the main advantages of an alternative and more flexible regulatory model: the settling-point model. Can you change your thinking?

According to the settling-point model, body weight tends to drift around a natu- ral settling point—the level at which the various factors that influence body weight achieve an equilibrium. The idea is that as body-fat levels increase, changes occur that tend to limit further increases until a balance is achieved between all factors that encourage weight gain and all those that discourage it.

The settling-point model provides a loose kind of homeostatic regulation, without a set-point mechanism or mechanisms to return body weight to a set point. Ac- cording to the settling-point model, body weight remains stable as long as there are no long-term changes in the factors that influence it; and if there are such changes, their impact is limited by negative feedback. In the settling- point model, the negative feedback merely limits further changes in the same direction, whereas in the set-point model, negative feedback triggers a return to the set point. A neuron’s resting potential is a well-known bio- logical settling point—see Chapter 4.

The seductiveness of the set-point mechanism is attrib- utable in no small part to the existence of the thermostat model, which provides a vivid means of thinking about it. Figure 12.14 presents an analogy I like to use to think about the settling-point mechanism. I call it the leaky-barrel model: (1) The amount of water entering the hose is analogous to the amount of food available to the subject; (2) the water pressure at the nozzle is analogous to the

positive-incentive value of the available food; (3) the amount of water entering the barrel is analogous to the amount of

energy consumed; (4) the water level in the barrel is analo- gous to the level of body fat; (5) the amount of water leak- ing from the barrel is analogous to the amount of energy being expended; and (6) the weight of the barrel on the hose is analogous to the strength of the satiety signal.

The main advantage of the settling-point model of body weight regulation over the body-fat set-point model is that it is more consistent with the data. Another advan- tage is that in those cases in which both models make the same prediction, the settling-point model does so more parsimoniously—that is, with a simpler mechanism that requires fewer assumptions. Let’s use the leaky-barrel analogy to see how the two models account for four key facts of weight regulation.

● Body weight remains relatively constant in many adult animals. On the basis of this fact, it has been argued that body fat must be regulated around a set point. However, constant body weight does not require, or even imply, a set point. Consider the leaky-barrel model. As water from the tap begins to fill the barrel, the weight of the water in the barrel increases. This in- creases the amount of water leaking out of the barrel and decreases the amount of water entering the barrel by increasing the pressure of the barrel on the hose. Eventually, this system settles into an equilibrium where the water level stays constant; but because this level is neither predetermined nor actively defended, it is a settling point, not a set point.

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● Many adult animals experience enduring changes in body weight. Set-point systems are designed to main- tain internal constancy in the face of fluctuations of the external environment. Thus, the fact that many adult animals experience long-term changes in body weight is a strong argument against the set-point model. In contrast, the settling-point model predicts that when there is an enduring change in one of the parameters that affect body weight—for example, a major increase in the positive-incentive value of available food—body weight will drift to a new settling point.

● If a subject’s intake of food is reduced, metabolic changes that limit the loss of weight occur; the oppo- site happens when the subject overeats. This fact is often cited as evidence for set-point regulation of body weight; however, because the metabolic changes merely limit further weight changes rather than eliminating those that have occurred, they are more consistent with a settling-point model. For example, when water intake in the leaky-barrel model is reduced, the water

level in the barrel begins to drop; but the drop is lim- ited by a decrease in leakage and an increase in inflow attributable to the falling water pressure in the barrel. Eventually, a new settling point is achieved, but the re- duction in water level is not as great as one might ex- pect because of the loss-limiting changes.

● After an individual has lost a substantial amount of weight (by dieting, exercise, or the surgical removal of fat), there is a tendency for the original weight to be re- gained once the subject returns to the previous eating- and energy-related lifestyle. Although this finding is often offered as irrefutable evidence of a body-weight set point, the settling-point model readily accounts for it. When the water level in the leaky-barrel model is reduced—by temporarily decreasing input (dieting), by temporarily increasing output (exercising), or by scoop- ing out some of the water (surgical removal of fat)— only a temporary drop in the settling point is produced. When the original conditions are reinstated, the water level inexorably drifts back to the original settling point.

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1The amount of water entering the hose is analogous to the amount of available food.

2 The water pressure at the nozzle is analogous to the incentive value of the available food.

3 The amount of water entering the barrel is analogous to the amount of consumed energy.

4 The water level in the barrel is analogous to the level of body fat.

5 The amount of water leaking from the barrel is analogous to the amount of energy being expended.

6 The weight of the barrel on the hose is analogous to the strength of the satiety signal.

FIGURE 12.14 The leaky-barrel model: a settling-point model of eating and body weight homeostasis.

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Does it really matter whether we think about body weight regulation in terms of set points or settling points— or is making such a distinction just splitting hairs? It cer- tainly matters to biopsychologists: Understanding that

body weight is regulated by a settling- point system helps them better under- stand, and more accurately predict,

the changes in body weight that are likely to occur in vari- ous situations; it also indicates the kinds of physiological mechanisms that are likely to mediate these changes. And it should matter to you. If the set-point model is correct, at- tempting to change your body weight would be a waste of time; you would inevitably be drawn back to your body- weight set point. On the other hand, the leaky-barrel model suggests that it is possible to permanently change your body weight by permanently changing any of the factors that influence energy intake and output.

11. ______ models are more consistent with the facts of body-weight regulation than are set-point models.

12. ______ are to set points as leaky barrels are to settling points.

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Are you ready to move on to the final two sections of the chapter, which deal with eating disorders? This is a good place to pause and scan your brain to see if you under- stand the physiological mechanisms of eating and weight regulation. Complete the following sentences by filling in the blanks. The correct answers are provided at the end of the exercise. Before proceeding, review material related to your incorrect answers and omissions.

1. The expectation of a meal normally stimulates the release of ______ into the blood, which reduces blood glucose.

2. In the 1950s, the ______ hypothalamus was thought to be a satiety center.

3. A complete cessation of eating is called ______. 4. ______ is the breakdown of body fat to create usable

forms of energy. 5. The classic study of Washburn and Cannon was the

perfect collaboration: Cannon had the ideas, and Washburn could swallow a ______.

6. CCK is a gut peptide that is thought to be a ______ peptide.

7. ______ is the monoaminergic neurotransmitter that seems to play a role in satiety.

8. Okinawans eat less and live ______. 9. Experimental studies of ______ have shown that typi-

cal ad libitum (free-feeding) levels of consumption are unhealthy in many mammalian species.

10. As an individual grows fatter, further weight gain is minimized by diet-induced ______.

Scan Your Brainanswers: (1) insulin, (2) ventromedial, (3) aphagia, (4) Lipolysis, (5) balloon, (6) satiety, (7) Serotonin, (8) longer, (9) calorie restriction, (10) thermogenesis, (11) Settling-point, (12) Thermostats.

12.6 Human Obesity: Causes, Mechanisms, and Treatments

This is an important point in this chapter. The chapter opened by describing the current epidemic of obesity and overweight and its adverse effects on health and longevity and then went on to discuss behavioral and physiological factors that influence eating and weight. Most importantly, as the chapter progressed, you learned that some common beliefs about eating and weight regulation are incompati- ble with the evidence, and you were challenged to think about eating and weight regulation in unconventional ways that are more consistent with current evidence. Now, the chapter completes the circle with two sections on eat- ing disorders: This section focuses on obesity, and the next covers anorexia and bulimia. I hope that by this point you realize that obesity is currently a major health problem and will appreciate the relevance of what you are learning to your personal life and the lives of your loved ones.

Who Needs to Be Concerned about Obesity? Almost everyone needs to be concerned about the prob- lem of obesity. If you are currently overweight, the reason for concern is obvious: The relation between obesity and poor health has been repeatedly documented (see Eilat- Adar, Eldar, & Goldbourt, 2005; Ferrucci & Alley, 2007; Flegal et al., 2007; Hjartåker et al., 2005; Stevens, McClain, & Truesdale, 2006). Moreover, some studies have shown that even individuals who are only a bit overweight run a greater risk of developing health problems (Adams et al., 2006; Byers, 2006; Jee et al., 2006), as do obese individuals who manage to keep their blood pressure and blood cho- lesterol at normal levels (Yan et al., 2006). And the risk is not only to one’s own health: Obese women are at in- creased risk of having infants with health problems (Nohr et al., 2007).

Even if you are currently slim, there is cause for con- cern about the problem of obesity. The incidence of obe- sity is so high that it is almost certain to be a problem for somebody you care about. Furthermore, because weight tends to increase substantially with age, many people who are slim as youths develop serious weight problems as they age.

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There is cause for special concern for the next genera- tion. Because rates of obesity are increasing in most parts of the world (Rosenheck, 2008; Sofsian, 2007), public health officials are concerned about how they are going to handle the growing problem. For example, it has been es- timated that over one-third of the children born in the United States in 2000 will eventually develop diabetes, and 10% of these will develop related life-threatening conditions (see Haslam, Sattar, & Lean, 2006; Olshansky et al., 2005).

Why Is There an Epidemic of Obesity? Let’s begin our analysis of obesity by considering the pressures that are likely to have led to the evolution of our eating and weight-regulation systems (see Flier & Maratos-Flier, 2007; Lazar, 2005; Pinel et al., 2000). Dur-

ing the course of evolution, inconsistent food supplies were one of the main threats to survival. As a result, the fittest individu-

als were those who preferred high-calorie foods, ate to ca- pacity when food was available, stored as many excess calories as possible in the form of body fat, and used their stores of calories as efficiently as possible. Individuals who did not have these characteristics were unlikely to survive a food shortage, and so these characteristics were passed on to future generations.

The development of numerous cultural practices and beliefs that promote consumption has augmented the ef- fects of evolution. For example, in my culture, it is com- monly believed that one should eat three meals per day at regular times, whether one is hungry or not; that food should be the focus of most social gatherings; that meals should be served in courses of progressively increasing palatability; and that salt, sweets (e.g., sugar), and fats (e.g., butter or cream) should be added to foods to im- prove their flavor and thus increase their consumption.

Each of us possesses an eating and weight-regulation system that evolved to deal effectively with periodic food shortages, and many of us live in cultures whose eating- related practices evolved for the same purpose. However, our current environment differs from our “natural” envi- ronment in critical food-related ways. We live in an envi- ronment in which an endless variety of foods of the highest positive-incentive and caloric value are readily and continuously available. The consequence is an ap- pallingly high level of consumption.

Why Do Some People Become Obese While Others Do Not? Why do some people become obese while others living under the same obesity-promoting conditions do not? At a superficial level, the answer is obvious: Those who are obese are those whose energy intake has exceeded their energy output; those who are slim are those whose energy intake

has not exceeded their energy output (see Nestle, 2007). Although this answer provides little insight, it does serve to emphasize that two kinds of individual differences play a role in obesity: those that lead to differences in energy input and those that lead to differences in energy output.

Differences in Consumption There are many factors that lead some people to eat more than others who have comparable access to food. For example, some people consume more energy because they have strong prefer- ences for the taste of high-calorie foods (see Blundell & Finlayson, 2004; Epstein et al., 2007); some consume more because they were raised in families and/or cultures that promote excessive eating; and some consume more because they have particu- larly large cephalic-phase re- sponses to the sight or smell of food (Rodin, 1985).

Differences in Energy Expenditure With respect to energy output, people differ markedly from one another in the degree to which they can dissipate excess consumed energy. The most obvious difference is that people differ substantially in the amount of exercise they get; however, there are others. You have already learned about two of them: differences in basal metabolic rate and in the ability to react to fat increases by diet-induced thermogenesis. The third factor is called NEAT, or nonexercise activity thermo- genesis, which is generated by activities such as fidgeting and the maintenance of posture and muscle tone (Ravussin & Danforth, 1999) and can play a small role in dissipating excess energy (Levine, Eberhardt, & Jensen, 1999; Ravussin, 2005).

Genetic Differences Given the number of factors that can influence food consumption and energy metabolism, it is not surprising that many genes can influence body weight. Indeed, over 100 human chromosome loci (regions) have already been linked to obesity (see Fischer et al., 2009; Rankinen et al., 2006). However, because body weight is influenced by so many genes, it is proving difficult to under- stand how their interactions with one another and with ex- perience contribute to obesity in healthy people. Although it is proving difficult to unravel the various genetic factors that influence variations in body weight among the healthy, single gene mutations have been linked to pathological con- ditions that involve obesity. You will encounter an example of such a condition later in this section.

Why Are Weight-Loss Programs Typically Ineffective? Figure 12.15 describes the course of the typical weight- loss program. Most weight-loss programs are unsuccess- ful in the sense that, as predicted by the settling-point model, most of the lost weight is regained once the dieter

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stops following the program and the original conditions are reestablished. The key to permanent weight loss is a permanent lifestyle change.

Exercise has many health-promoting effects; however, despite the general belief that exercise is the most effective method of losing weight, several studies have shown that it often contributes little to weight loss (e.g., Sweeney et al., 1993). One reason is that physical exercise normally accounts for only a small proportion of total en- ergy expenditure: About 80% of the energy you expend is used to maintain the resting physiological processes of your body and to digest your food (Calles-Escandon & Horton, 1992). Another reason is that our bodies are effi- cient machines, burning only a small number of calories during a typical workout. Moreover, after exercise, many people feel free to consume extra drinks and foods that contain more calories than the relatively small number that were expended during the exercise.

Leptin and the Regulation of Body Fat Fat is more than a passive storehouse of energy; it actively releases a peptide hormone called leptin. The discovery of leptin has been extremely influential (see Elmquist & Flier, 2004). The following three subsections describe (1) the discovery of leptin, (2) how its discovery has fu- eled the development of a new approach to the treatment

of human obesity, and (3) how the understanding that leptin (and insulin) are feedback signals led to the discov- ery of a hypothalamic nucleus that plays an important role in the regulation of body fat.

Obese Mice and the Discovery of Leptin In 1950, a spontaneous genetic mutation occurred in the mouse colony being maintained in the Jackson Laboratory at Bar Harbor, Maine. The mutant mice were homozygous for the gene (ob), and they were grossly obese, weighing up to three times as much as typical mice. These mutant mice are commonly referred to as ob/ob mice. See Figure 12.16.

Ob/ob mice eat more than control mice; they convert calories to fat more efficiently; and they use their calories more efficiently. Coleman (1979) hypothesized that ob/ob mice lack a critical hormone that normally inhibits fat production and maintenance.

In 1994, Friedman and his colleagues characterized and cloned the gene that is mutated in ob/ob mice (Zhang et al., 1994). They found that this gene is expressed only in fat cells, and they characterized the protein that it nor- mally encodes, a peptide hormone that they named leptin. Because of their mutation, ob/ob mice lack leptin. This finding led to an exciting hypothesis: Perhaps leptin is a negative feedback signal that is normally released from fat

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1 Weight lossoccurs rapidly at beginning of diet

2 As weightdeclines, the amount of energy “leakage” is automatically reduced, and this reduces the rate of weight loss

3 Gradually thereduced rate of intake is matched by the reduced energy output, and a new stable settling point is achieved

4 When the dietis terminated, weight gain is rapid because of the high incentive value of food and the low level of energy leakage

5 As weightaccumulates, the incentive value of food gradually decreases and the energy leakage increases until the original settling point is regained

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FIGURE 12.15 The five stages of a typical weight-loss program.

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stores to decrease appetite and increase fat metabolism. Could leptin be administered to obese humans to reverse the current epidemic of obesity?

Leptin, Insulin, and the Arcuate Melanocortin System There was great fanfare when leptin was dis- covered. However, it was not the first peptide hormone to be discovered that seems to function as a negative feed- back signal in the regulation of body fat (see Schwartz, 2000; Woods, 2004). More than 25 years ago, Woods and colleagues (1979) suggested that the pancreatic peptide hormone insulin serves such a function.

At first, the suggestion that insulin serves as a negative feedback signal for body fat regulation was viewed with skepticism. After all, how could the level of insulin in the body, which goes up and then comes back down to nor- mal following each meal, provide the brain with infor- mation about gradually changing levels of body fat? It turns out that insulin does not readily penetrate the blood–brain barrier, and its levels in the brain were found to stay relatively stable—indeed, high levels of glu- cose are toxic to neurons (Tomlinson & Gardiner, 2008). The following findings supported the hypothesis that in- sulin serves as a negative feedback signal in the regula- tion of body fat:

● Brain levels of insulin were found to be positively cor- related with levels of body fat (Seeley et al., 1996).

● Receptors for insulin were found in the brain (Baura et al., 1993).

● Infusions of insulin into the brains of laboratory ani- mals were found to reduce eating and body weight (Campfield et al., 1995; Chavez, Seeley, & Woods, 1995).

Why are there two fat feedback signals? One reason may be that leptin levels are more closely correlated with subcutaneous fat (fat stored under the skin), whereas insulin levels are more closely correlated with visceral

fat (fat stored around the internal organs of the body cavity)—see Hug & Lodish (2005). Thus, each fat signal provides different information. Visceral fat is more common in males than females and poses the greater threat to health (Wajchenberg, 2000). Insulin, but not leptin, is also involved in glucose regulation (see Schwartz & Porte, 2005).

The discovery that leptin and insulin are signals that provide information to the brain about fat levels in the body provided a means for discovering the neural cir- cuits that participate in fat regulation. Receptors for both peptide hormones are located in many parts of the nervous system, but most are in the hypothalamus, par- ticularly in one area of the hypothalamus: the arcuate nucleus.

A closer look at the distribution of leptin and insulin receptors in the arcuate nucleus indicated that these re- ceptors are not randomly distributed throughout the nu- cleus. They are located in two classes of neurons: neurons that release neuropeptide Y (the gut hunger peptide that you read about earlier in the chapter), and neurons that release melanocortins, a class of peptides that includes the gut satiety peptide α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (alpha-melanocyte-stimulating hormone). Attention has been mostly focused on the melanocortin-releasing neurons in the arcuate nucleus (often referred to as the melanocortin system) because injections of α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone have been shown to suppress eating and pro- mote weight loss (see Horvath, 2005; Seeley & Woods, 2003). It seems, however, that the melanocortin system is only a minor component of a much larger system: Elimi- nation of leptin receptors in the melanocortin system produces only a slight weight gain (see Münzberg & Myers, 2005).

Leptin as a Treatment for Human Obesity The early studies of leptin seemed to confirm the hypothesis that it could function as an effective treatment for obesity. Re- ceptors for leptin were found in the brain, and injecting it into ob/ob mice reduced both their eating and their body fat (see Seeley & Woods, 2003). All that remained was to prove leptin’s effectiveness in human patients.

However, when research on leptin turned from ob/ob mice to obese humans, the program ran into two major snags. First, obese humans—unlike ob/ob mice—were found to have high, rather than low, levels of leptin (see Münzberg & Myers, 2005). Second, injections of leptin did not reduce either the eating or the body fat of obese humans (see Heymsfield et al., 1999).

Why the actions of leptin are different in humans and ob/ob mice has yet to be explained. Nevertheless, efforts to use leptin in the treatment of human obesity have not been a total failure. Although few obese humans have a genetic mutation to the ob gene, leptin is a panacea for those few who do. Consider the following case.

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FIGURE 12.16 An ob/ob mouse and a control mouse.

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The Case of the Child with No Leptin

The patient was of normal weight at birth, but her weight soon began to increase at an excessive rate. She demanded food continually and was disruptive when denied food. As a result of her extreme obesity, deformities of her legs de- veloped, and surgery was required.

She was 9 when she was referred for treatment. At this point, she weighed 94.4 kilograms (about 210 pounds), and her weight was still increasing at an alarming rate. She was found to be homozygous for the ob gene and had no detectable leptin. Thus, leptin therapy was com- menced.

The leptin therapy immediately curtailed the weight gain. She began to eat less, and she lost weight steadily over the 12-month period of the study, a total of 16.5 kilograms (about 36 pounds), almost all in the form of fat. There were no obvious side effects (Farooqi et al., 1999).

Treatment of Obesity Because obesity is such a severe health problem, there have been many efforts to develop an effective treatment. Some of these—such as the leptin treatment you just read about—have worked for a few, but the problem of obesity continues to grow. The following two subsections discuss two treatments that are at different stages of de- velopment: serotonergic agonists and gastric surgery.

Serotonergic Agonists Because—as you have already learned—serotonin agonists have been shown to reduce food consumption in both human and nonhuman sub- jects, they have considerable potential in the treatment of obesity (Halford & Blundell, 2000a). Serotonin agonists seem to act by a mechanism different from that for leptin and insulin, which produce long-term satiety signals based on fat stores. Serotonin agonists seem to increase short-term satiety signals associated with the consump- tion of a meal (Halford & Blundell, 2000b).

Serotonin agonists have been found in various studies of obese patients to reduce the following: the urge to eat high- calorie foods, the consumption of fat, the subjective inten-

sity of hunger, the size of meals, the number of between-meal snacks, and bingeing. Because of this extremely posi-

tive profile of effects and the severity of the obesity problem, serotonin agonists (fenfluramine and dexfenfluramine) were rushed into clinical use. However, they were subse- quently withdrawn from the market because chronic use was found to be associated with heart disease in a small, but significant, number of users. Currently, the search is on for serotonergic weight-loss medications that do not have dan- gerous side effects.

Gastric Surgery Cases of extreme obesity sometimes warrant extreme treatment. Gastric bypass is a surgical treatment for extreme obesity that involves short-circuiting the normal path of food through the digestive tract so that its absorption is reduced. The first gastric bypass was done in 1967, and it is currently the most commonly pre- scribed surgical treatment for extreme obesity. An alter- native is the adjustable gastric band procedure, which involves surgically positioning a hollow silicone band around the stomach to reduce the flow of food through it; the circumference of the band can be adjusted by inject- ing saline into the band through a port that is implanted in the skin. One advantage of the gastric band over the gastric bypass is that the band can readily be removed.

The gastric bypass and adjustable gastric band are illustrated in Figure 12.17. A meta-analysis of studies comparing the two procedures found both to be highly effective (Maggard et al., 2005). However, neither proce- dure is effective unless patients change their eating habits.

12.7 Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa

In contrast to obesity, anorexia nervosa is a disorder of underconsumption (see Södersten, Bergh, & Zandian, 2006). Anorexics eat so little that they experience health- threatening weight loss; and despite their emaciated appearance, they often perceive themselves as fat (see Benning- hoven et al., 2006). Anorexia nervosa is a serious condition; In approximately 10% of diagnosed cases, complications from starvation result in death (Birmingham et al., 2005), and there is a high rate of suicide among anorexics (Pompili et al., 2004).

Anorexia nervosa is related to bulimia nervosa. Bulimia nervosa is a disorder characterized by periods of not eating interrupted by bingeing (eating huge amounts of food in short periods of time) followed by efforts to immediately eliminate the consumed calories from the body by voluntary purging (vomiting); by excessive use of laxatives, enemas, or diuretics; or by extreme exercise. Bu- limics may be obese or of normal weight. If they are un- derweight, they are diagnosed as bingeing anorexics.

Relation between Anorexia and Bulimia Are anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa really different disorders, as current convention dictates? The answer to this question depends on one’s perspective. From the perspec- tive of a physician, it is important to distinguish between these disorders because starvation pro- duces different health problems than does repeated bingeing and purging.

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For example, anorexics often require treatment for reduced metabolism, bradycardia (slow heart rate), hypotension (low blood pressure), hypothermia (low body temperature), and anemia (deficiency of red blood cells) (Miller et al., 2005). In contrast, bulimics often require treatment for irritation and inflammation of the esophagus, vitamin and mineral defi- ciencies, electrolyte imbalance, dehydration, and acid reflux.

Although anorexia and bulimia nervosa may seem like very different disorders from a physician’s perspective, sci- entists often find it more appropriate to view them as vari- ations of the same disorder. According to this view, both anorexia and bulimia begin with an obsession about body image and slimness and extreme efforts to lose weight. Both anorexics and bulimics attempt to lose weight by strict diet- ing, but bulimics are less capable of controlling their ap- petites and thus enter into a cycle of starvation, bingeing, and purging (see Russell, 1979). The following are other similarities that support the view that anorexia and bulimia are variants of the same disorder (see Kaye et al., 2005):

● Both anorexics and bulimics tend to have distorted body images, seeing themselves as much fatter and

less attractive than they are in reality (see Grant et al., 2002).

● In practice, many patients seem to straddle the two di- agnoses and cannot readily be assigned to one or the other categories and many patients flip-flop between the two diagnoses as their circumstances change (Lask & Bryant-Waugh, 2000; Santonastaso et al., 2006; Ten- coni et al., 2006).

● Anorexia and bulimia show the same pattern of distri- bution in the population. Although their overall inci- dence in the population is low (lifetime incidence estimates for American adults are 0.6% and 1.0% for anorexia and bulimia, respectively; Hudson et al., 2007), both conditions occur more commonly among educated females in affluent cultural groups (Lind- berg & Hjern, 2003).

● Both anorexia and bulimia are highly correlated with obsessive-compulsive disorder and depression (Kaye et al., 2004; O’Brien & Vincent, 2003).

● Neither disorder responds well to existing therapies. Short-term improvements are common, but relapse is usual (see Södersten et al., 2006).

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From esophagus From esophagusStaples create a smaller stomach pouch

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FIGURE 12.17 Two surgical methods for treating extreme obesity: gastric bypass and adjustable gastric band. The gastric band can be tightened by injecting saline into the access port implanted just beneath the skin.

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Anorexia and Positive Incentives The positive-incentive perspective on eating suggests that the decline in eating that defines both anorexia (and bulimia) is likely a consequence of a corresponding de- cline in the positive-incentive value of food. However, the

positive-incentive value of food for anorexia patients has received little attention—in part, because anorexic

patients often display substantial interest in food. The fact that many anorexic patients are obsessed with food— continually talking about it, thinking about it, and preparing it for others (Crisp, 1983)—seems to suggest that food still holds a high positive-incentive value for them. However, to avoid confusion, it is necessary to keep in mind that the positive-incentive value of interacting with food is not necessarily the same as the positive-incentive value of eating food—and it is the positive-incentive value of eating food that is critical when considering anorexia nervosa.

A few studies have examined the positive-incentive value of various tastes in anorexic patients (see, e.g., Drewnowski et al., 1987; Roefs et al., 2006; Sunday & Halmi, 1990). In general, these studies have found that the positive-incentive value of various tastes is lower in anorexic patients than in control participants. However, these studies grossly under- estimate the importance of reductions in the positive- incentive value of food in the etiology of anorexia nervosa, because the anorexic participants and the normal-weight control participants were not matched for weight—such matching is not practical.

We can get some insight into the effects of starvation on the positive-incentive value of food by studying starva- tion. That starvation normally triggers a radical increase in the positive-incentive value of food has been best docu- mented by the descriptions and behavior of participants voluntarily undergoing experimental semistarvation. When asked how it felt to starve, one participant replied:

I wait for mealtime. When it comes I eat slowly and make the food last as long as possible. The menu never gets mo- notonous even if it is the same each day or is of poor quality. It is food and all food tastes good. Even dirty crusts of bread in the street look appetizing. (Keys et al., 1950, p. 852)

Anorexia Nervosa: A Hypothesis The dominance of set-point theories in research into the regulation of hunger and eating has resulted in wide- spread inattention to one of the major puzzles of anorexia: Why does the adaptive massive increase in the positive-incentive value of eating that occurs in victims of starvation not occur in starving anorexics? Under condi- tions of starvation, the positive-incentive value of eating normally increases to such high levels that it is difficult to imagine how anybody who was starving—no matter how

controlled, rigid, obsessive, and motivated that person was—could refrain from eating in the presence of palat- able food. Why this protective mechanism is not activated in severe anorexics is a pressing question about the etiol- ogy of anorexia nervosa.

I believe that part of the answer lies in the research of Woods and his colleagues on the aversive physiological effects of meals. At the beginning of meals, people are nor- mally in reasonably homeostatic bal- ance, and this homeostasis is disrupted by the sudden infusion of calories. The other part of the answer lies in the finding that the aversive effects of meals are much greater in people who have been eating little (Brooks & Melnik, 1995). Meals, which produce adverse, but tolerable, effects in healthy individuals, may be extremely aversive for individuals who have undergone food deprivation. Evidence for the extremely noxious effects that eating meals has on starving humans is found in the re- actions of World War II concentration camp victims to refeeding—many were rendered ill and some were even killed by the food given to them by their liberators (Keys et al., 1950; see also Soloman & Kirby, 1990).

So why do severe anorexics not experience a massive in- crease in the positive-incentive value of eating, similar to the increase experienced by other starving individuals? The answer may be meals—meals forced on these patients as a result of the misconception of our society that meals are the healthy way to eat. Each meal consumed by an anorexic may produce a variety of conditioned taste aversions that reduce the motivation to eat. This hypothesis needs to be addressed because of its implication for treatment: Anorexic patients—or anybody else who is severely under- nourished—should not be encouraged, or even permitted, to eat meals. They should be fed—or infused with—small amounts of food intermittently throughout the day.

I have described the preceding hypothesis to show you the value of the new ideas that you have encountered in this chapter: The major test of a new theory is whether it leads to innovative hypotheses. A while ago, as I was perusing an article on global famine and malnutrition, I noticed an in- triguing comment: One of the clinical complications that results from feeding meals to famine victims is anorexia (Blackburn, 2001). What do you make of this?

The Case of the Anorexic Student In a society in which obesity is the main disorder of con- sumption, anorexics are out of step. People who are struggling to eat less have difficulty understanding those who have to struggle to eat. Still, when you stare anorexia in the face, it is diffi- cult not to be touched by it.

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She began by telling me how much she had been enjoy- ing the course and how sorry she was to be dropping out of the university. She was articulate and personable, and her grades were high—very high. Her problem was anorexia; she weighed only 82 pounds, and she was about to be hospitalized.

“But don’t you want to eat?” I asked naively.“Don’t you see that your plan to go to medical school will go up in smoke if you don’t eat?”

“Of course I want to eat. I know I am terribly thin— my friends tell me I am. Believe me, I know this is wreck- ing my life. I try to eat, but I just can’t force myself. In a strange way, I am pleased with my thinness.”

She was upset, and I was embarrassed by my insensi- tivity. “It’s too bad you’re dropping out of the course be- fore we cover the chapter on eating,” I said, groping for safer ground.

“Oh, I’ve read it already,” she responded. “It’s the first chapter I looked at. It had quite an effect on me; a lot of things started to make more sense. The bit about posi-

tive incentives and learning was really good. I think my problem began when eating started to lose its positive- incentive value for me—in my mind, I kind of associ- ated eating with being fat and all the boyfriend problems I was having. This made it easy to diet, but every once in a while I would get hungry and binge, or my parents would force me to eat a big meal. I would eat so much that I would feel ill. So I would put my fin- ger down my throat and make myself throw up. This kept me from gaining weight, but I think it also taught my body to associate my favorite foods with illness— kind of a conditioned taste aversion. What do you think of my theory?”

Her insightfulness impressed me; it made me feel all the more sorry that she was going to discontinue her studies. After a lengthy chat, she got up to leave, and I walked her to the door of my office. I wished her luck and made her promise to come back for a visit. I never saw her again, but the image of her emaciated body walking down the hallway from my office has stayed with me.

325Think about It

Themes Revisited

Three of the book’s four themes played prominent roles in this chapter. The thinking creatively theme was prevalent as you were challenged to critically evaluate your own beliefs and ambiguous research findings, to consider the

scientific implications of your own experiences, and to think in new ways about phenomena with major personal

and clinical implications. The chapter ended by using these new ideas to develop a potentially important hypothesis about the etiology of anorexia nervosa. Because of its emphasis on thinking, this chapter is my personal favorite.

Both aspects of the evolutionary perspective theme were emphasized repeatedly. First, you saw how thinking about hunger and eating from an evolutionary perspective leads to important insights. Second, you saw how controlled research on nonhuman species has contributed to our current understanding of human hunger and eating.

Finally, the clinical implications theme pervaded the chapter, but it was featured in the cases of the man who forgot not to eat, the child with Prader-Willi syndrome, the child with no leptin, and the anorexic student.

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Think about It

1. Set-point theories suggest that attempts at permanent weight loss are a waste of time. On the basis of what you have learned in this chapter, design an effective and per- manent weight-loss program.

2. Most of the eating-related health problems of people in our society occur because the conditions in which we live are different from those in which our species evolved. Discuss.

3. On the basis of what you have learned in this chapter, de- velop a feeding program for laboratory rats that would lead to obesity. Compare this program with the eating habits prevalent in your culture.

4. What causes anorexia nervosa? Summarize the evidence that supports your view.

5. Given the weight of evidence, why is the set-point theory of hunger and eating so prevalent?

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Set point (p. 299)

12.1 Digestion, Energy Storage, and Energy Utilization Digestion (p. 299) Lipids (p. 300) Amino acids (p. 300) Glucose (p. 300) Cephalic phase (p. 301) Absorptive phase (p. 301) Fasting phase (p. 301) Insulin (p. 301) Glucagon (p. 301) Gluconeogenesis (p. 301) Free fatty acids (p. 301) Ketones (p. 301)

12.2 Theories of Hunger and Eating: Set Points versus Positive Incentives Set-point assumption (p. 302) Negative feedback systems

(p. 303)

Homeostasis (p. 303) Glucostatic theory (p. 303) Lipostatic theory (p. 303) Positive-incentive theory

(p. 304) Positive-incentive value (p. 304)

12.3 Factors That Determine What, When, and How Much We Eat Satiety (p. 306) Nutritive density (p. 306) Sham eating (p. 306) Appetizer effect (p. 307) Cafeteria diet (p. 308) Sensory-specific satiety (p. 308)

12.4 Physiological Research on Hunger and Satiety Ventromedial hypothalamus

(VMH) (p. 309) Lateral hypothalamus (LH)

(p. 310) Hyperphagia (p. 310)

Dynamic phase (p. 310) Static phase (p. 310) Aphagia (p. 310) Adipsia (p. 310) Lipogenesis (p. 310) Lipolysis (p. 310) Paraventricular nuclei (p. 311) Duodenum (p. 312) Cholecystokinin (CCK) (p. 312) Prader-Willi syndrome (p. 313)

12.5 Body Weight Regulation: Set Points versus Settling Points Diet-induced thermogenesis

(p. 315) Basal metabolic rate (p. 315) Settling point (p. 316) Leaky-barrel model (p. 316)

12.6 Human Obesity: Causes, Mechanisms, and Treatments NEAT (p. 319) Leptin (p. 320)

Ob/ob mice (p. 320) Subcutaneous fat (p. 321) Visceral fat (p. 321) Arcuate nucleus (p. 321) Neuropeptide Y (p. 321) Melanocortins (p. 321) Melanocortin system (p. 321) Gastric bypass (p, 322) Adjustable gastric band

procedure (p. 322)

12.7 Anorexia and Bulimia Nervosa Anorexia nervosa (p. 322) Bulimia nervosa (p. 322)

Key Terms

Test your comprehension of the chapter with this brief practice test. You can find the answers to these questions as well as more practice tests, activities, and other study resources at www.mypsychlab.com.

1. The phase of energy metabolism that often begins with the sight, the smell, or even the thought of food is the a. luteal phase. b. absorptive phase. c. cephalic phase. d. fasting phase. e. none of the above

2. The ventromedial hypothalamus (VH) was once believed to be a. part of the hippocampus. b. a satiety center. c. a hunger center. d. static. e. dynamic.

3. Patients with Prader-Willi syndrome suffer from a. anorexia nervosa. b. bulimia. c. an inability to digest fats. d. insatiable hunger. e. lack of memory for eating.

4. In comparison to obese people, slim people tend to a. have longer life expectancies. b. be healthier. c. be less efficient in their use of body energy. d. all of the above e. both a and b

5. Body fat releases a hormone called a. leptin. b. glucagon. c. insulin. d. glycogen. e. serotonin.

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