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Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

Brown-Sequard Syndrome, named after its discoverer Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, is a rare neurological disorder that affects the spinal cord, resulting in distinct neurological deficits. This syndrome, often caused by traumatic spinal cord injuries or other pathological conditions, presents with a unique set of symptoms that can vary in severity depending on the location and extent of the spinal cord damage. Understanding the causes, signs, and treatment options for Brown-Sequard Syndrome is crucial for healthcare professionals to provide effective care and support to affected individuals. This paper aims to explore the causes, signs and symptoms, etiology, pathophysiology, DSM-5 diagnosis, treatment regimens and patient education, and conclude with insights into this complex neurological disorder. By delving into these aspects, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of Brown-Sequard Syndrome and its implications for patient care and management. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Causes of Brown-Sequard Syndrome

Brown-Sequard Syndrome typically arises from traumatic injuries to the spinal cord, often resulting from accidents, falls, or acts of violence. These injuries can lead to compression, contusion, or laceration of the spinal cord, disrupting its normal function. Additionally, tumors, both primary and metastatic, can impinge upon the spinal cord, causing damage and subsequent neurological deficits characteristic of Brown-Sequard Syndrome.

Infections such as abscesses or inflammatory conditions like transverse myelitis can also affect the spinal cord, leading to this syndrome. Moreover, degenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis or spinal cord ischemia due to vascular disorders can contribute to the development of Brown-Sequard Syndrome.

Penetrating injuries, such as gunshot wounds or stab wounds, pose a significant risk for causing Brown-Sequard Syndrome by directly damaging one side of the spinal cord. The severity of the syndrome often correlates with the extent of spinal cord injury, with complete transections resulting in more profound deficits compared to partial injuries.

Additionally, certain medical procedures, such as spinal surgeries or epidural steroid injections, carry a risk of complications that may include damage to the spinal cord, potentially leading to Brown-Sequard Syndrome.

Rarely, non-traumatic causes such as spinal cord infarction, spinal cord tumors, or vascular malformations can also result in Brown-Sequard Syndrome. In some cases, the exact cause of the syndrome may remain unknown, especially when no clear traumatic or pathological event precipitates its onset.

Overall, Brown-Sequard Syndrome can stem from various causes, including traumatic injuries, tumors, infections, degenerative diseases, and vascular disorders affecting the spinal cord. Understanding these diverse etiologies is crucial for accurate diagnosis and effective management of this neurological disorder. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

Signs and Symptoms

The signs and symptoms of Brown-Sequard Syndrome are characterized by a distinct pattern of neurological deficits resulting from damage to one side of the spinal cord. These deficits typically manifest differently depending on the level and extent of the spinal cord injury.

One of the hallmark features of Brown-Sequard Syndrome is weakness or paralysis on one side of the body, known as hemiparaplegia. This weakness affects the muscles controlled by the damaged portion of the spinal cord, leading to impaired motor function.

In addition to hemiparaplegia, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome may experience loss of sensation on the same side of the body as the paralysis. This sensory loss typically involves deficits in proprioception, tactile sensation, and vibration sense, reflecting the disruption of sensory pathways within the spinal cord.

Conversely, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome often retain sensation on the opposite side of the body, known as the contralateral side. This preservation of sensation on the unaffected side is a distinguishing feature of the syndrome and is attributed to the intact sensory pathways on the contralateral side of the spinal cord.

Furthermore, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome may exhibit altered reflexes on the affected side of the body, such as hyperreflexia or hyporeflexia, depending on the level of the spinal cord injury and the involvement of specific reflex arcs.

Other less common symptoms of Brown-Sequard Syndrome may include urinary or bowel dysfunction, sexual dysfunction, and disturbances in temperature regulation due to disruption of autonomic pathways within the spinal cord.

Overall, the signs and symptoms of Brown-Sequard Syndrome reflect the hemisection of the spinal cord, resulting in a characteristic pattern of motor, sensory, and autonomic deficits on the affected side of the body. Recognizing these symptoms is crucial for timely diagnosis and management of this rare neurological disorder. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Etiology of Brown-Sequard Syndrome

Brown-Sequard Syndrome arises from damage to one side of the spinal cord, leading to specific neurological deficits characteristic of the syndrome. The etiology of this condition can be attributed to various factors, including traumatic injuries, pathological conditions, and iatrogenic causes.

Traumatic injuries, such as those sustained in accidents, falls, or acts of violence, are among the most common causes of Brown-Sequard Syndrome. These injuries can result in compression, contusion, or laceration of the spinal cord, leading to disruption of sensory and motor pathways on one side of the body.

Pathological conditions, including tumors and infections, can also contribute to the development of Brown-Sequard Syndrome. Tumors, both primary and metastatic, can exert pressure on the spinal cord, causing damage and subsequent neurological deficits characteristic of the syndrome. Similarly, infections such as abscesses or inflammatory conditions like transverse myelitis can affect the spinal cord, leading to similar neurological deficits.

Degenerative diseases, such as multiple sclerosis or spinal cord ischemia due to vascular disorders, can also lead to Brown-Sequard Syndrome. These conditions can cause damage to the spinal cord, disrupting its normal function and resulting in characteristic symptoms of the syndrome.

Iatrogenic causes, including complications from medical procedures such as spinal surgeries or epidural steroid injections, can also result in Brown-Sequard Syndrome. These procedures carry a risk of complications that may include damage to the spinal cord, leading to neurological deficits characteristic of the syndrome.

Overall, the etiology of Brown-Sequard Syndrome is diverse and can include traumatic injuries, pathological conditions, degenerative diseases, and iatrogenic causes. Understanding these various etiologies is essential for accurate diagnosis and effective management of this neurological disorder. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Pathophysiology

Brown-Sequard Syndrome is characterized by a distinct pattern of neurological deficits resulting from damage to one side of the spinal cord, leading to disruption of sensory and motor pathways. The pathophysiology of this syndrome involves the hemisection of the spinal cord, which affects sensory and motor functions differently depending on the location and extent of the injury.

The spinal cord comprises white matter tracts that transmit sensory information from the periphery to the brain and motor commands from the brain to the muscles, as well as gray matter regions involved in processing and integrating this information. Damage to one side of the spinal cord disrupts these pathways, leading to specific deficits on the affected side of the body.

In Brown-Sequard Syndrome, the hemisection of the spinal cord results in ipsilateral paralysis or weakness on the same side of the body as the injury. This paralysis occurs due to the disruption of descending motor pathways that control voluntary movement.

Conversely, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome typically retain proprioception and tactile sensation on the same side of the body as the paralysis. This preservation of sensation is attributed to intact dorsal columns on the ipsilateral side of the spinal cord, which transmit sensory information related to proprioception, tactile sensation, and vibration sense.

However, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome often experience loss of pain and temperature sensation on the contralateral side of the body due to disruption of spinothalamic tracts that transmit these sensory modalities. This contralateral sensory loss is a distinguishing feature of the syndrome and reflects the hemisection of the spinal cord.

Overall, the pathophysiology of Brown-Sequard Syndrome involves disruption of sensory and motor pathways within the spinal cord, resulting in characteristic deficits on the affected side of the body. Understanding this pathophysiology is crucial for accurate diagnosis and targeted management of this neurological disorder. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

DSM-5 Diagnosis

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), does not provide specific diagnostic criteria for Brown-Sequard Syndrome, as it primarily focuses on psychiatric disorders. However, diagnosis of Brown-Sequard Syndrome is typically based on clinical presentation, imaging studies, and neurological assessments.

Clinical presentation plays a key role in diagnosing Brown-Sequard Syndrome. Healthcare professionals evaluate the patient’s history of trauma or other underlying conditions, as well as the presence of characteristic signs and symptoms such as hemiparaplegia, sensory deficits, and altered reflexes.

Imaging studies, particularly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), are instrumental in confirming the diagnosis of Brown-Sequard Syndrome. MRI can reveal the location and extent of spinal cord injury, which helps differentiate Brown-Sequard Syndrome from other spinal cord disorders.

Neurological assessments are essential for evaluating the severity and extent of neurological deficits associated with Brown-Sequard Syndrome. These assessments may include testing motor function, sensation, reflexes, and autonomic function on both sides of the body.

Overall, while the DSM-5 does not provide specific diagnostic criteria for Brown-Sequard Syndrome, healthcare professionals rely on clinical presentation, imaging studies, and neurological assessments to diagnose this rare neurological disorder. The diagnosis is based on a comprehensive evaluation of the patient’s history, symptoms, and objective findings, which guide appropriate management and treatment interventions. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

Treatment Regimens and Patient Education

Effective management of Brown-Sequard Syndrome involves a multidisciplinary approach aimed at addressing the underlying cause, managing symptoms, and maximizing functional recovery. Treatment regimens may include a combination of medical interventions, physical therapy, occupational therapy, medications, and surgical procedures tailored to the individual patient’s needs.

Medical interventions focus on addressing the underlying cause of Brown-Sequard Syndrome, such as surgical decompression for spinal cord compression due to tumors or traumatic injuries. In cases of infection, antibiotics or antiviral medications may be prescribed to control the infection and prevent further damage to the spinal cord.

Physical therapy plays a crucial role in rehabilitation and maximizing functional recovery for individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome. Physical therapists design customized exercise programs to improve strength, flexibility, balance, and coordination, targeting specific areas affected by the syndrome. These exercises help individuals regain motor function and enhance their overall mobility and independence.

Occupational therapy focuses on enhancing activities of daily living (ADLs) and adaptive skills to promote independence and improve quality of life. Occupational therapists provide training in techniques to compensate for sensory deficits and develop strategies to overcome challenges related to mobility, self-care, and participation in meaningful activities.

Medications may be prescribed to manage symptoms associated with Brown-Sequard Syndrome, such as pain, spasticity, and neuropathic pain. Common medications include analgesics, muscle relaxants, and anticonvulsants, which help alleviate discomfort and improve overall comfort and well-being.

In some cases, surgical interventions may be necessary to address specific complications or improve outcomes for individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome. Surgical procedures may include spinal fusion, decompression laminectomy, or tumor resection, depending on the underlying cause and extent of spinal cord injury.

Patient education is essential for individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome to understand their condition, treatment options, and strategies for managing symptoms and promoting recovery. Healthcare professionals provide information about the nature of the syndrome, expected outcomes, and potential complications. Patients and their caregivers learn techniques for preventing complications such as pressure ulcers, urinary tract infections, and deep vein thrombosis.

Furthermore, patients receive guidance on lifestyle modifications, including maintaining a healthy diet, staying physically active within their abilities, and managing stress. Patient education empowers individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome to actively participate in their care, make informed decisions, and optimize their overall well-being and quality of life. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Conclusion

Brown-Sequard Syndrome is a rare neurological disorder characterized by specific deficits resulting from spinal cord injury. Understanding its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment is crucial for effective management and patient care. Traumatic injuries, tumors, infections, and degenerative diseases are common causes, leading to a distinct pattern of motor and sensory deficits. The pathophysiology involves disruption of sensory and motor pathways within the spinal cord, resulting in hemisection and ipsilateral paralysis. While the DSM-5 does not provide specific diagnostic criteria, clinical presentation, imaging studies, and neurological assessments aid in diagnosis. Treatment regimens include medical interventions, physical and occupational therapy, medications, and surgical procedures tailored to individual needs. Patient education plays a vital role in empowering individuals to actively participate in their care and optimize their quality of life. By addressing these aspects comprehensively, healthcare professionals can improve outcomes and enhance the overall well-being of individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

References

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538135/

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Paper Human Sexuality homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Assignment Help Nursing, BLOG, Homework Help, Nursing Exam Help, Nursing Paper Help /by Daniel Jennings

Paper Human Sexuality homework help

Preface

This past year was tough, making the switch to LeVay et al., but I’m glad I did it. Discovering Human Sexuality is unique in both approach and content. The authors have a point of view, but still provide balanced coverage of contro- versial issues. The boxes are wonderful. One of the things I like about it is the inclusion of historical and cross-cultural detail in the boxes. It’s a very readable and beautiful book. The illustrations and diagrams are excellent—the best of any text I have ever used. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Josephine Caldwell-Ryan Southern Methodist University

Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition, is the continuation of a textbook that originated in 2003 with the publication of Human Sexuality by Simon LeVay and Sharon Valente. Since then, the book has gone through several changes of author- ship, format, and title. One consistency, however, has been the identity of the lead author. Another has been the book’s high academic and pedagogical standards, which have earned it a prominent place in the market and broad praise from review- ers and users, including the kind words cited above.

The Second Edition of Human Sexuality appeared in 2006 with the same two authors. For the 2009 edition, however, Janice Baldwin replaced Sharon Valente. Also, we decided to produce two distinct versions of the book. One of them— Human Sexuality, Third Edition—continued the approach pioneered in the earlier editions. The other, which we titled Discovering Human Sexuality, was a somewhat shorter and more accessible version that demanded less prior knowledge on the part of the students, especially in the area of biol- ogy. John Baldwin joined LeVay and Janice Baldwin as third author of this version. In 2012 we continued with the same two versions (Human Sexuality, Fourth Edition, and Discover- ing Human Sexuality, Second Edition).

For the current edition we have decided to merge the two versions into one, which we have titled Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition. It was a difficult decision to make because both versions had been successful in the market- place and each served a somewhat different need. However, the workload involved in producing two different textbooks at the same time was excessive. In addition, we realized that we could incorporate the best features of Human Sexuality into Discovering Human Sexuality by judicious changes to the text and by the addition of two appendices containing more advanced “optional” material.

Features of Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition Important features of Discovering Human Sexuality distinguish our book from competing texts: (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

evidence-based approach We believe that human sexuality is an academic subject like any other, meaning that it should be grounded in reason. Throughout the book, we have sought to present statements that are supported by data, ideas that are tested or testable, and recommendations that are based on research. There are many unanswered questions in sexuality, of course—questions about how ab- normal modes of sexual expression (paraphilic disorders) develop, for example, and how best to treat them. In deal- ing with these controversies, an evidence-based approach demands a nondogmatic style and a willingness to admit that not everything is known. Some students may feel chal- lenged to enter the field of sex research themselves in order to help fill those gaps in our understanding.

Some human sexuality texts contain a great deal of advice to students, especially in the area of relationships. Much of this advice has no objective basis and seems designed more to transmit the authors’ values than to foster an authentic learning experience. In Discovering Human Sexuality, we keep the total quantity of advice down and try to ensure that the advice we do give has been “field-tested.” Even in such an elementary matter as how to put on a condom, many texts include useless steps, such as squeezing the tip of the con- dom to leave space for the ejaculate. Doing so serves no pur- pose—the man who could burst a condom with his ejaculate has yet to be born—and neither the World Health Organiza- tion nor the leading U.S. experts believe that it should be part of the instructions for condom use. It has become an element in the folklore that gets perpetuated by textbooks— though not by this one. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Literature citations are, of course, an important element of an evidence-based book. We have been surprised by how cavalierly some competing books deal with this issue—quite commonly, citations in the text are not matched by any cor- responding entries in the bibliography. In Discovering Human Sexuality we have made every effort to ensure that references are fully documented. Another common practice that we consider unacademic is referring to original research stud- ies by citing magazine or newspaper articles that mention

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xxII PREFACE

them, rather than the journal articles in which the research was presented. Our policy has been to cite original sources wherever possible, and to use magazine and newspaper references for the kinds of topics they excel at, such as news stories, cultural trends, and the like. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help) emphasis on diversity Today’s college students come from a wide range of backgrounds, and in their adult lives they will have to deal with people very different from themselves. Our text presents this diversity in a detailed and nonjudgmental fashion. For example, with regard to sexual orientation, we go far beyond “gay,” “bisexual,” and “straight”: We talk about the ever-changing history of the butch-femme dichotomy in lesbian culture, women whose self-identity is too fluid for one-word labels, gay men who are “bears” or “bear cubs” or into the leather scene, what it’s like to be gay and Asian-American or Native American, how the gay experience differs for different generations of Americans and for gay people around the world, and so on. Similarly, we take pains to discuss racial, ethnic, and religious diversity, as they affect sexuality, and of course diversity in the actual modes of sexual behavior—including some of the more unusual forms of sexual expression such as “adult babies” and men whose partners are (liter- ally) dolls. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help) presentation style Simon LeVay, Janice Baldwin, and John Baldwin are all experienced authors of college text- books. In creating Discovering Human Sexuality, we have pooled our writing skills to ensure that the text is fully accessible, engaging, and relevant to students of diverse back- grounds. The result of these combined efforts is, we believe, the most readable and student-friendly human sexuality text on the market.

art program Another way that we have striven to maintain both comprehensibility and interest is through the illustrations. One might think that it would be a simple matter to illustrate a book on human sexuality, but in reality it is a significant challenge. Illustrating some of the concepts dis- cussed in this book, especially in its more biologically oriented sections, requires a great deal of thought and design skill. Our publisher, Sinauer Associates, is an industry leader in the use of art as a pedagogical medium. Thanks to our publisher’s efforts, many complex topics, such as the regulation of the menstrual cycle, have been given a visual representation that gracefully parallels and clarifies the accompanying text. Nearly every two-page spread in the book offers one or more illustrations—photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, or charts—relevant to the text on that spread. Besides their informative value, illustrations offer important visual relief. Some of our competitors’ texts contain sequences of up to ten pages without a single illustration—a definite challenge to the average student’s attention span. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help) boxes The 76 boxes are an important feature of the book. The boxes are organized into eight themes: Controversies; Biology of Sex; Cultural Diversity; Research Highlights; Sexual Health; Sex in History; Personal Points of View; and Society, Values, and the Law. Within each theme, the sub- jects range from the serious to the lighthearted, but they all attempt to broaden the reader’s horizons with a more in- depth look at specific questions than is possible within the main text: What exactly does “losing one’s virginity” mean to today’s teenagers, behaviorally and emotionally? Is there more than one kind of female ejaculation? What’s it like to be a rubber fetishist? Why do some Amazonian peoples be- lieve that a child can have several fathers? In tackling these and many other questions, the boxes provide breaks from the steady flow of the text and allow students to consider specific issues in a more relaxed and informal way.

Other aids to learning and revision include key terms (indi- cated by boldfaced type and defined in a running glossary), FAQs (frequently asked questions), discussion questions, chapter summaries, Web resources, and recommended reading materials.

Discovering Human Sexuality’s student companion web- site (sites.sinauer.com/discoveringhumansexuality3e) is an invaluable learning aid. This site parallels the text with a thorough set of study questions, animations, activities, Web topics, quizzes, and other resources. Website activities are linked to the text and are referenced in maroon type in the printed text. In addition, a complete set of instructor supple- ments is available to qualified adopters of the textbook. See the section on Media and Supplements for details on the full range of material that accompanies Discovering Human Sexuality.

The Third Edition The following are examples of the many changes that we have made for the Third Edition: zz Chapter 1, “Sexuality: Pathways to Understanding,”

has been thoroughly rewritten. It now pays less attention to the history of sex research and more to the diversity of methods that are used to study sexu- ality. We discuss a specific example of the use of each methodological approach. zz We have added discussions of many topics that

were not covered, or only briefly covered, in earlier editions. These topics include group sex (Chapter 6); data-mining studies based on OkCupid and

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http://sites.sinauer.com/discoveringhumansexuality3e

other websites (Chapters 5, 12, and elsewhere); the influence of physical attractiveness on men’s and women’s satisfaction with their long-term relation- ships (Chapter 5); the new definitions of paraphilias and paraphilic disorders in DSM-5 and the contro- versy surrounding them (Chapter 13); the current debate on how to respond vigorously and yet fairly to allegations of campus rape (Chapter 16); and the personalities and attitudes of men who use prosti- tutes (Chapter 17). We have also deleted numerous passages that seemed less interesting or instructive than they were a few years ago. zz We have added 19 new boxes on a wide range of

topics, including “Foot Orgasms,” “Pain-free Child- birth,” “Feticide,” “Why Gay Genes?” “STIs and the Law,” and “What’s It Like to Be a Porn Star?” zz We have of course taken the opportunity to update

the book with the latest research, surveys, statistics, laws, medical advances, contraceptive techniques, and cultural happenings. zz The two appendices cover material that was not

included in Discovering Human Sexuality, Second Edition. We present this material in the form of appendices so that instructors may include it or not as suits the purposes of their classes and the interests and backgrounds of their students. Appendix A is an abbreviated and updated version of the chapter “Sex and Evolution” from Human Sexuality, Fourth Edi- tion. It tackles important questions that are addressed in few other undergraduate human sexuality text- books, such as: What is the adaptive value of sexual reproduction? How does sexual selection work? What are the benefits and costs of male and female promiscuity? and What is the basis of incest avoid- ance? Appendix B lays out more detail on the role of the nervous system in sexual behavior and physiol- ogy than is presented in the main text, including, for example, the anatomy and functional role of the autonomic nervous system in genital responses. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Acknowledgments Producing a modern college textbook such as this one requires the combined efforts of a much larger team of professionals than the three of us who are privileged to have our names on the front cover. The staff members of Sinauer Associates have produced, with great efficiency and good humor, a textbook of outstanding visual quality and educational value. Those with whom we have had the most enduring contacts are editor Sydney Carroll, produc- tion editor Martha Lorantos, and photo researcher David

McIntyre, but many others labored behind the scenes to ensure the book’s high quality and timely production. We are especially grateful for the production oversight of Janice Holabird and Christopher Small, and for the creative cover design by Joan Gemme. We also thank Lou Doucette for her skillful copyediting; Jason Dirks, Carolyn Mailler, Mara Sil- ver, Suzanne Carter, Ann Chiara, Thomas Friedmann, and Nate Nolet for their work on the media and supplements package; Marie Scavotto, Nancy Asai, and Susan McGlew for their effective work promoting the book; Johanna Walko- wicz for obtaining outside reviews; and Penny Grant for sending us our checks on time!

Reviewers We acknowledge with gratitude the extensive and construc- tive comments made by the people who reviewed chapters of Discovering Human Sexuality for the new edition. These reviewers are listed below. Helpful comments have also come from the Baldwins’ students at the University of Cali- fornia, Santa Barbara.

Ernest Abel, Wayne State University Amy Beeman, San Diego Mesa College Kimberly Blackwell, Hampton University Elizabeth Calamidas, Richard Stockton College Michael Clayton, Youngstown State University Karen Gee, Mission College Samantha Gibeau, Lane Community College John Hallock, Pima Community College Julie Harris, East Carolina University Lynda Hoggan, Mt. San Antonio College Nathan Iverson, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Jason Lavender, North Dakota State University Janet Lever, California State University, Los Angeles Vicki Lucey, Modesto Junior College Stephanie Marin, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Wanda C. McCarthy, University of Cincinnati Clermont College Heather Meggers, Birmingham Southern College Tami James Moore, University of Nebraska at Kearney Peggy Oberstaller, Lane Community College Carolyn Peterson, University of Cincinnati Jason Rothman, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Justine Shuey, Montgomery County Community College Peter Sparks, Oregon State University–Cascades Paul Vasey, University of Lethbridge James Vaughn, University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma

PREFACE xxIII

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Media and Supplements to accompany Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition

For the Student Companion Website sites.sinauer.com/discoveringhumansexuality3e

The Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition Companion Website includes a robust set of study and review aids—all available at no cost to the student. This online companion to the textbook takes the place of a printed study guide and includes the following resources: zz Chapter Outlines: Complete outlines of each chapter

provide an overview of the chapter and include links to the relevant Study Questions for each section. zz Chapter Summaries: A thorough review of each chap-

ter’s content. zz Learning Objectives: The objectives help focus the

student on the important concepts and topics in each chapter; each is referenced to specific textbook head- ings and pages. zz Activities: For selected chapters, animations, dynamic

illustrations, and labeling exercises help the student learn and understand complex concepts and ana- tomical (and other) terms. zz Study Questions: An extensive set of interactive self-

study questions covers the full range of content in every chapter. zz Flashcards: Students can quiz themselves on all the

important terms from each chapter, or they can browse the list of terms as a review. zz Web Links: A set of online sites and resources relevant

to each chapter. zz Glossary: A complete online version of the book’s

glossary. zz Online Quizzes: Two sets of questions are available

for each chapter, for instructors to assign or make available to students as review exercises (instructor registration required): zz Multiple-Choice Quizzes test student comprehension of the material covered in each chapter. zz Essay Questions challenge students to synthesize and apply what they have learned. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

For the Instructor (available to qualified adopters)

Instructor’s Resource Library The Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition Instructor’s Resource Library (IRL) contains a wealth of resources for use in course planning, lecture development, and assessment. Contents include: zz Textbook Figures & Tables: All of the textbook’s figures

(both line art and photographs) are provided as JPEG files at two sizes: high-resolution (excellent for use in PowerPoint) and low-resolution (ideal for web pages and other uses). All the artwork has been reformatted and optimized for exceptional image quality when projected in class. zz PowerPoint Resources: Two ready-to-use presentations

are provided for each chapter: zz A lecture presentation that includes text covering the entire chapter, with selected figures. zz A figures presentation that includes all the figures and tables from the chapter. zz Instructor’s Manual: The Instructor’s Manual provides instructors with a variety of resources to aid in planning their course and developing their lectures. For each chapter, the manual includes a chapter overview, a chapter outline, the complete chap- ter summary, class discussion questions, teaching resources, and suggested readings. zz Media Guide: The Media Guide includes extensive lists of suggested video segments (and full-length titles) that are ideal for use as lecture starters or other in-class activities. Video suggestions (with links and sources) are provided for topics across all chap- ters, and suggested discussion questions are also included. zz Test Bank: The Test Bank consists of a broad range of questions covering all the key facts and concepts in each chapter. Each chapter includes multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and, new for the Third Edition, short answer questions. Also included are all of the Companion Website quizzes (multiple-choice and essay), the textbook end-of-chapter questions, and

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http://sites.sinauer.com/discoveringhumansexuality3e

MEDIA AND SUPPLEMENTS xxV

the Media Guide discussion questions. All questions are keyed to Bloom’s Taxonomy and referenced to specific textbook sections. zz Computerized Test Bank: The entire test bank is pro-

vided in Blackboard’s Diploma software. Diploma makes it easy to assemble quizzes and exams from any combination of publisher-provided questions and instructor-created questions. In addition, quiz- zes and exams can be exported to many different course management systems, such as Blackboard and Moodle.

Online Quizzing The Discovering Human Sexuality Companion Website fea- tures pre-built chapter quizzes (see above) that report into an online gradebook. Adopting instructors have access to these quizzes and can choose to either assign them or let students use them for review. (Instructors must register in order for their students to be able to take the quizzes.) Instructors also have the ability to add their own questions and create their own quizzes.

Value Options eBOOK Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition is available as an eBook, in several different formats. The eBook can be pur- chased as either a 180-day rental or a permanent (non-expir- ing) subscription. All major mobile devices are supported. For details on the eBook platforms offered, please visit www. sinauer.com/ebooks.

Looseleaf Textbook (ISBN 978-1-60535-379-1) Discovering Human Sexuality is available in a three-hole punched, looseleaf format. Students can take just the sec- tions they need to class and can easily integrate instructor material with the text.

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http://www.sinauer.com/ebooks

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Discovering Human Sexuality

third edition

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1Chapter

Sexuality is a fundamental aspect of human nature.

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Sexuality: Pathways to Understanding

Sexuality is a central and all-pervasive theme of human existence. At its best, sexuality charges our lives with energy, excitement, and love. It offers a deep sense of connectedness, capable of spanning and healing social divisions. It creates family, the primary unit of society and the cradle of future generations.

At its worst, sexuality brings prejudice, anguish, violence, and disease. To begin our exploration of this powerful and mysterious force, we first ask what the terms “sex” and “sexuality” mean and why sexuality is a topic worth studying. We go on to review some of the ways in which human sexuality has changed between the origin of our species and the present day. Our purpose is to make clear that, even though there may be some eternal truths about sexuality, it is not static: It changes slowly as a result of evolutionary forces, and much faster under the influence of culture. We then go on to describe the variety of methods by which sexuality can be studied, methods that will be applied repeatedly throughout the remainder of the book.

To do it justice, we must approach human sexuality with open minds, with respect for diversity, and with all the modes of inquiry that have been used to illuminate human nature. Approached in this way, the topic is not just another step in your college career: It is a personal voyage of discovery that will help you to enjoy the best that sexuality has to offer, and to avoid the worst. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

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4 chapter 1

Sexuality Is a Broader Concept than Sex The term sex has two meanings. First, it means the distinction between female and male—a distinction that, as we’ll see in later chapters, is not as clear-cut as you might imagine. Second, it means engaging in sexual behaviors. These behaviors may be very obviously sexual because they are marked by genital phenomena such as vagi- nal lubrication, penile or clitoral erection, orgasm, and so on. But they also include behaviors that do not directly involve the genitals, such as courtship, as well as behaviors such as kissing that may or may not be sexual depending on context.

The term sexuality includes sex but also goes beyond it to encompass the entire realm of human experience that is more or less closely connected with sex. It means, for example, our gendered traits—the psychological traits that differ, to a greater or lesser extent, between women and men. It means our sexual and romantic attrac- tions and relationships—who we find attractive or fall in love with, and how we establish, maintain, or dissolve sexual partnerships. It means becoming a parent (or preventing that from happening). It also includes the two-way relationship between our personal sexual identities and behaviors and social structures such as the law, religion, medicine, and politics. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Studying Sexuality Has Practical Benefits There are many possible reasons why you have chosen to take a course in human sexuality. Maybe you’re simply curious about a topic that is often treated with embar- rassment, evasion, or flippancy. Maybe you are looking for ways to improve your own sex life, or you think you have sexual problems that need to be solved. Maybe you are planning a career that requires an understanding of human sexuality.

Regardless of your specific motives, many practical benefits are to be gained from taking this course and reading this textbook. Here are some examples:

zz Improving your understanding of the structure and function of your geni- tals and those of your partners will help you give and receive more plea- sure from sex. zz Learning more about how people communicate on sexual topics will

increase your chances of forming and maintaining satisfying relationships and avoiding abusive ones. zz Learning about sexual diversity will encourage you to be more understanding of unusual sexual desires and behaviors—whether in others or in yourself. zz Educating yourself about contraception and sexually transmitted infections will lessen the chance that your sexual behavior may end up harming you or your partners. zz Becoming knowledgeable about sex will be an asset to you in your future career—most especially if you enter the medical or helping fields, but also in any career that brings you into contact with other people. zz Educating yourself about sex will enable you to educate others—including your friends and your own children, if you plan to have them. zz By learning to think critically about research, you will become a more discriminating consumer of media reports and advertising relating to sexuality.

Sexuality Has Changed over Time Most—but not all—women and men experience sexual desire and engage in sexual relationships at some point in their lives. This has likely been true across the course of sex A person’s identity as female or male, or sexual behavior. sexuality The feelings, behaviors, and identities associated with sex. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

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human history and prehistory, and it is true around the world today. But the ways in which these desires and relationships express themselves have been extraordi- narily varied. Here we sketch some of the changes that have occurred over time.

Sexuality has been influenced by evolution Humans evolved from the common ancestors of humans and nonhuman pri- mates, who lived about 7 million years ago. You might think that we could get some idea of early human sexuality by studying the sexual behavior of our clos- est relatives, the great apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans), on the assumption that these animals have changed less over time than we have.

It turns out, however, that there is a great deal of sexual diversity even among these closely related species. Among chimpanzees, for example, most sexual behavior is between males and females and has the potential to lead to preg- nancy. Among bonobos, which look very similar to chimpanzees, sexual contact between individuals of the same sex is common. The function of such behavior is clearly not reproductive; rather, it serves the purposes of conflict resolution and alliance formation (Parish & de Waal, 2000). Among orangutans coercive sex—analogous to rape in humans—is common (Knott et al., 2010), but that’s not true for bonobos. Some of these species differences are described in Appendix A. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

One general characteristic of sexual behavior among our primate relatives is that more of it takes place than is strictly necessary for reproductive purposes—some- times a great deal more. Another is that individuals compete for sex partners: Males often compete for access to the most fertile females, while females often compete for the attention of high-ranking males. You don’t have to be a sex researcher to know that these kinds of competition are prevalent in our own species today. It’s likely that competition for partners has characterized sexuality throughout human history and prehistory, and that this competition has driven the evolution of sex differences in appearance and behavior.

Early in the evolution of our species, humans probably lacked understanding of the connection between coitus (penile-vaginal intercourse) and reproduction. Of course, they acted as if they understood, just as our primate relatives do, but their sexual behavior was actually driven by instincts that required little conscious aware- ness. Even today, there are human cultures where people are unaware of biological facts that seem obvious to us, such as the fact that a child has just one father, or that pregnancy and childbirth result from a single act of coitus (Box 1.1).

Over the course of human history the trend toward an increasingly conscious understanding of how sex “works” has influenced human sexuality in directions that seem counterintuitive in evolutionary terms. For example, the knowledge that the deposition of semen (the male ejaculate) in the vagina is what causes pregnancy led to the introduction of contraceptive practices. These included withdrawal of the penis prior to ejaculation—a practice known already in Old Testament times—and the use of various kinds of barriers placed in the vagina. Similarly, methods intended to interrupt an established pregnancy—by use of certain herbs or poisons, or by black magic—were widely used in the Middle Ages, with varying success. As methods for contraception and abortion have improved over the centuries, so has it become increasingly possible to enjoy the pleasures of sex without its natural consequences. This has undoubtedly increased people’s—especially women’s—willingness to engage in sex both within and outside of established relationships. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Society has changed sexuality Human sexuality has been greatly influenced by the development of social controls. The transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of settled agriculture took place coitus Penile-vaginal intercourse.

Male primates, such as these golden snub-nosed monkeys, often fight over access to females.

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6 chapter 1

in the Middle East roughly 10,000 years ago. This transition led eventually to the formation of city-states, which required governments and the regulation of social behavior. Nudity was restricted, in part with the aim of reducing sexual arousal, pre- venting the sight of sexual arousal in others, and eliminating sexual conflicts. (Some present-day hunter-gatherer cultures still permit nudity.) Marriage was formalized, and nonmarital sex was discouraged to a greater or lesser degree.

Meet My Dads no matter how many men a woman has sex with, any child she bears has only a single biological father—the man whose sperm fertilized the woman’s ovum. in most cultures around the world, people accept this reality of single paternity. yet anthropologists have discovered an exception among many of the indigenous tribal societies of lowland South america (amazonia and nearby areas). here people believe that a man’s semen remains in the woman’s body indefinitely after sexual intercourse, so if several different men have sex with her before she becomes pregnant, then all of them contribute to the making of her child (Becker- man & Valentine, 2002).

this belief is called partible paternity (“divisible fatherhood”). By studying language relationships among the societies where partible paternity is found, anthropologist robert walker of the university of Missouri and his colleagues have traced it back to the distant past, probably to the time when the lowlands were first settled and the settlers spoke a common language (walker et al., 2010). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help) what benefit does the concept of partible paternity confer? anthropologists such as William Crocker of the Smithsonian institution have found that the societies that believe in partible paternity engage in distinctive sexual practices (crocker & crocker, 2003). they may participate in rituals in which women engage in sex sequentially with multiple men. and unlike in other cultures, where men typically guard their wives from sexual con- tact with other males, men in these amazonian tribes may freely offer their wives to male relatives as well as to powerful men who are actual or potential allies. partible paternity, and the practices associated with them, benefit women’s efforts to raise children. that’s because the multiple “fathers” of a given child may give gifts in exchange for sex, may support or protect the child, or may at least refrain from killing the child. (the killing of infants and children by men has traditionally been a significant cause of mortality in Amazonian cultures.) what about the men? on the face of it, the notion of partible paternity seems to disadvantage them, because they may end up supporting children who are not biologically theirs. on the other hand, they are “hedging their reproductive bets” by spreading their semen widely. this may be of particular value to high-status men, who gain disproportionate access to other men’s wives, thanks to partible paternity. in addition, partible paternity gives men some assurance that their biological children will have male support in the event of their own premature death, something that’s all too common in Amazonia. this still leaves unanswered the question of why partible paternity is common in lowland South America but rare else- where. the answer may be related to the importance of kin- ship and alliances in those societies, combined with a general absence of material wealth. in such circumstances paternity may be used as a unit of wealth that can be traded, as it were, in social networks. partible paternity the belief that two or more men may be fathers of the same child.

This Araweté woman of Brazil may believe that two or more men fathered her son.

Box 1.1 Cultural Diversity

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Organized religion played a role in these changes (Endsjo, 2011). Although religious teachings have varied greatly, they have often fostered procreative heterosexual sex within marriage while labeling other forms of sexual expression as sinful. This was particularly true for the Christian religion: For most of the two millennia since its foundation, Christian teachings forbade all nonmarital sex, homo- sexual sex, masturbation, contraception, abortion, and polygamy. Even marital sex was restricted to coitus in certain positions, and it was forbidden on certain days of the week and during Lent (Ranke-Heinemann, 1990). Priests were commonly barred from marriage or any kind of sexual activity. This changed to some extent after the Reformation, when western Christianity splintered into numerous denominations, some of which have become much more liberal in the area of sexual ethics compared with the Catholic Church. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

The development of large-scale societies led to the emergence of class structures, with the rich and powerful at the top and the impoverished masses at the bottom. What class you belonged to greatly influenced your sex life. Take India: The Kama Sutra, compiled around the 2nd century, describes innumerable ways for men to obtain sexual pleasure and to give sexual pleasure to women (Vatsyayana, 1991) (Figure 1.1). It also describes sex between women and between men. But the Kama Sutra was written for and about the idle rich. (What to do between breakfast and lunch? Teach your parrot to talk.) If the sex lives of low- caste Indians were anything like they are today, they involved hasty, fully-clothed couplings with the minimum of pleasure or romance (Nath & Nayar, 1997).

Another way that class influenced sexuality had to do with polygamy. The major- ity of human cultures have permitted men to have more than one wife, but it was largely rich and powerful men who did so, because they had sufficient means—King Solomon is said to have had a thousand wives. Polygamy reduced the numbers of available women and thus made it harder for poor men to afford even one wife. What’s more, polygamy is connected with the idea that women are men’s property— if a rich man has many cattle, why shouldn’t he have many wives? By banning polyg- amy, the Christian religion promoted a somewhat more gender-equitable society.*

Across history, large numbers of men have been deprived of a sex life altogether by being castrated—that is, by having their testicles removed, and sometimes the penis also. Such men were called eunuchs. Castration was carried out as a punish- ment among criminals or prisoners of war, or (if done before puberty) to produce asexual male slaves who could serve certain roles such as court attendants, harem guards, dancers, or singers. Some eunuchs achieved powerful positions in imperial courts across Asia. In India, some men were (and still are) voluntarily castrated as an initiation into the transgender religious caste known as hijras, who are described further in Chapter 4 (Nanda, 1998). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Figure 1.1 The Kama Sutra describes a wide variety of sexual positions.

* In early Islam, polygamy helped provide for the many women whose husbands died in warfare.

heterosexuality Sexual attraction to, or behavior with, persons of the opposite sex.

homosexuality Sexual attraction to, or behavior with, persons of the same sex.

polygamy Having more than one spouse at the same time, as a social institution.

castration Removal of the testicles or testicles and penis.

eunuch A man who has been castrated.

transgender (or trans) Identifying with the other sex or rejecting gender norms.

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In general, castration has served the interests of noncastrated men, especially powerful men, and it therefore represents another way in which class and sexuality interact. Today, castration by surgery or “chemical castration” by drugs is performed voluntarily on some men with prostate cancer in an effort to prolong their lives—per- haps a quarter of a million American men are in this situation (Wassersug et al., 2014). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Another important effect of cultural change has involved sexually transmitted infections. When people lived in small groups and stayed in a restricted area, they tended to reach a biological accommodation with the infectious agents (bacteria and viruses) present in that population, such that their effects were not especially severe. Increases in population density and long-distance travel changed this picture: The organism that causes syphilis, for example, was present in the native populations of the Americas long before the arrival of Columbus and other explorers, but when these men returned to Europe, bringing the organism with them, it unleashed a dev- astating epidemic (Rothschild et al., 2000). Potentially fatal diseases such as syphilis and (more recently) AIDS made sex itself seem frightening and sinful.

Marriage has been transformed Yet another important change has been the radical decline in birth rates that has taken place in most countries, starting in the late 18th century. Over this period the number of children born to the average American woman has fallen from 7 or 8 to about 2 (Figure 1.2). Today, there are plenty of women or couples who choose to have no children at all—something that used to be quite unusual, except for women in religious orders. This decline has not been accompanied by any decline in people’s interest in sex. Thus the idea has gained currency that sex has a legitimate emotional or recreational function, beyond the production of children.

The institution of marriage has changed over time (Abbott, 2011). In many tradi- tional societies marriage signified the transfer of ownership of a woman from her father to her husband; marriages were negotiated and often involved large bridal payments. People fell in love, but they were lucky if they married the people they fell in love with. In Europe and America, even as late as the 19th century, a suitor was expected to ask the girl’s father for permission to propose to her, and if permis- sion was refused—because the young man had insufficient means, for example—the young couple’s only recourse might be to run away (elope) and marry at some distant location. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

A woman was expected to be a virgin when she married, but a man could be forgiven or even admired for “sowing his wild oats.” (This was an example of the double standard, by which males and females were, and still may be, held to differ- ent moral codes.) The husband’s and wife’s roles in marriage were also quite distinct:

double standard The idea that acceptable behavior is different for men than for women.

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Figure 1.2 Declining birthrates This graph shows the average number of children born to American women between 1800 and 2010. The data for white and African-American women are plotted separately.

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The husband was the breadwinner, the wife the homemaker and child rearer, perhaps with the help of servants.

Before the 20th century, marriage was for life: Divorce was quite uncommon and was only permitted in cases of proven adultery. Divorce laws were greatly liberalized over the course of the 20th century, and now nearly half of all U.S. marriages end in divorce rather than death (Wilcox & Marquardt, 2011). What’s more, it’s now widely accepted that women are sexually active before mar- riage, and that couples may live together (cohabit) before mar- riage or without marrying at all. And the birth of children outside of marriage, once a shocking secret, is now more or less routine: Over 40% of all U.S. births are now to unmarried women, who may be single or cohabiting with a man or with a woman (Martin et al., 2013).

Up until the mid-20th century the vast majority of Americans considered inter- racial marriage to be sinful, and such marriages were illegal in many states. Atti- tudes changed gradually after World War II, and in 1967 the U.S. Supreme Court established a constitutional right to marry across racial lines (Figure 1.3). Currently we are witnessing a similar trend with regard to same-sex marriage, but gay couples who marry today are joining an institution that has lost a great deal of its former significance. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Sex has become a topic of social discourse The 20th century saw a dramatic increase in people’s willingness to talk about sex. At the beginning of the century Victorian prudery still ruled: Most people could talk about sex only obliquely, if at all. Then came a series of outspoken researchers and activists whose work turned sex into a hot topic of conversation. Here are a few of them:

zz Havelock Ellis (1859–1939) was an English physician who described unusual kinds of sexual expression (which had previously been called “perversions”) in a sympathetic rather than a condemnatory way. zz Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist and founder

of psychoanalysis. He proposed that our lives are governed by a roiling unconscious world of sexual drives and conflicts (Box 1.2). zz Margaret Sanger (1879–1966), an American social activist, campaigned

tirelessly and effectively for women’s right to learn about and practice contraception. zz Alfred Kinsey (1894–1956) was an Indiana University biologist whose pio-

neering sex surveys (the “Kinsey Reports”) caused a sensation when they were published in 1948 and 1953 (Figure 1.4). zz Margaret Mead (1901–1978) was an American cultural anthropologist who

described the sexually uninhibited lifestyles of some Pacific Islanders. zz William Masters (1915–2001) and Virginia Johnson (1925–2013), of Wash-

ington University in St. Louis, pioneered the physiological study of sexual responses in healthy people and in those with sexual disorders.

cohabitation A live-in sexual relationship between individuals who are not married to each other.

Figure 1.3 Supreme Court justice Clarence Thomas and his wife Virginia are one of the many couples who have benefited from the court’s 1967 ruling that there is a constitutional right to marry across racial lines. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

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School sex education, which is now mandated in 22 U.S. states (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2014) and throughout Canada, has also promoted discussion and awareness of sexual issues. Even today, though, many Americans find it difficult or inappropriate to talk about sex, and in some more-conservative cultures it may be completely off-limits.

Social movements have affected sexuality Political and social movements have impacted sexuality in America and elsewhere. In the 1970s and 1980s the women’s movement asserted women’s right to control their own bodies (through contraception and abortion, for example), to be free of sexual coercion, and to seek pleasure in sexual relationships. The idea gained ground that men shared responsibility for ensuring that their female partners experienced pleasure, including orgasm, during sex.

The gay liberation movement led to the increasing acceptance of homosexuality, which led in turn to the enactment of anti-discrimination laws, starting in the 1980s, and the nationwide legalization of gay sex by a 2003 ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court. Advocates have campaigned for recognition and social acceptance of many other facets of sexuality: bisexuality, asexuality, transgender identity, intersexual- ity, plural marriage (polygamy), polyamory, sadomasochism, fetishes, pedophilia, pornography, and prostitution. (If some of these terms are unfamiliar to you, don’t worry: We will be covering them all in later chapters.) Although these efforts have met with widely varying success—and rightly so, you may think—what they have done is change the conversation: Sexual expression, it’s now increasingly agreed, should be legally restricted only when it makes rational sense to do so, not simply when it runs afoul of tradition, prejudice, or good taste.

Of course, sexuality doesn’t just change over time; it also varies widely from place to place around the present-day world, and among individuals within the same population. We will focus primarily on North America, the region where this text is used, but from time to time we will make trips overseas to look at examples of global diversity in sexual behavior and ideas about sexuality.

Figure 1.4 Let’s talk about sex. Sex researcher Alfred Kinsey (far right) lectures at the University of California in 1949.

What was the “sexual revolution” of the 1960s?

It was a youth-led movement for greater sexual freedom and indi- viduality, driven by rebellion against the more orthodox World War II generation and fueled by feminism, the contraceptive pill, rock and roll, and drugs. An enduring conse- quence was the greater acceptance of sex outside of marriage. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

FAQ

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Freud and Hirschfeld: Contrasting Theories on Sexual Orientation about a century ago, two european doctors proposed radically different theories to account for why some people are sexually attracted predominantly to members of the other sex while oth- ers are attracted to members of the same sex or to both sexes— a characteristic we now call sexual orientation. in Vienna, Sig- mund Freud (Figure A) developed a theory that was based on the concept of an unconscious mind, whose operations could supposedly be probed by psychoanalytic techniques such as free association, the interpretation of dreams, and slips of the tongue. the unconscious mind, though hidden from view and free from moral restraints, nevertheless resembled the con- scious mind in many respects—both were capable of rational thought, planning, memory, and emotion.

in Freud’s conception, the unconscious mind was more broadly focused in its sexual desires than was the conscious mind. this was particularly true during early childhood, which he believed included autoerotic and homosexual phases as well as incestuous desires directed toward one or the other parent. Freud thought that the “normal” progression to adult hetero- sexuality could be derailed in various ways, often involving unconscious emotional processes such as a hostile, too-close, or jealous relationship with a parent or sibling. these phenom- ena could lead to what Freud called perversions, that is, men- tal states in which adult sexual desires were directed toward atypical targets, such as people of the same sex (homosexu- ality), inanimate objects (fetishism), and so on. or they could lead to neuroses, in which the sexual element was supposedly repressed from consciousness altogether and reemerged in the form of nonsexual traits and disorders, such as obsessive- compulsive behaviors, depression, or “hysteria.”

in Berlin, Magnus hirschfeld (Figure B) took a quite different view. hirschfeld proposed the existence of two neural centers in the brain that were responsible for sexual attraction to men and to women, respectively. he suggested that during early fetal life all humans possessed both centers, but later one center grew and dominated, while the other regressed. in men, of course, it was usually the center for attraction to women that persisted, while in women it was the center for attraction to men. only in the minority of homosexual individuals did development take the opposite course. hirschfeld believed that sex hormones (then understood in only a very rudimentary way) channeled develop- ment in one direction or another, and that people also had a genetic predisposition to same-sex or opposite-sex attraction.

in many ways, the views of Freud and hirschfeld represented opposite approaches to understanding the mind and sexual- ity. Freud tried to understand the mind in terms of processes that, though hidden, were inherently mental—unconscious thoughts. and he believed interpersonal relationships held the key to sexual orientation and other aspects of adult sexuality.

to Freud, getting to your adult sexuality was a long, sometimes chaotic drama in which the unconscious mind took the leading role. hirschfeld, on the other hand, tried to reduce the mind to relatively simple nonmental phenomena such as the growth and activity of nerve cells, hormone secretion, and information encoded in the genes. in hirschfeld’s view, these phenomena controlled sexual development in a manner that was largely independent of family relationships and other aspects of life experience. to hirschfeld, getting to your adult sexuality was a process that unfolded mechanistically without your active par- ticipation—it simply happened to you.

Freud’s theories came to dominate most people’s ideas about the mind and sexuality through the early and middle part of the 20th century, while hirschfeld’s theories languished in obscurity. toward the end of the century, however, a noticeable shift of views occurred. to some people, Freud’s theories began to seem capricious, poorly substantiated, or inspired by prejudice (against women especially). Meanwhile, scientific advances tended to bol- ster a biological view of sexuality. Studies in animals showed that prenatal hormone levels do indeed influence sexual behavior in adulthood, and family studies supported the idea that genes do have some influence on sexual orientation in humans.

probably the dominant view at present is that both approaches offer potential insights into human sexuality. there must be some biological underpinnings to our thoughts and behaviors, and exploring these underpinnings is likely to tell us a lot about why people differ from one another sexually. on the other hand, it seems likely that some aspects of human sexuality need to be studied at the level of thoughts—in other words, by a cognitive approach. thus, even if neither Freud’s nor hirschfeld’s theories turn out to be entirely correct, they may both have contributed useful styles of thinking to the discussion. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

perversion an obsolete term for atypical sexual desire or behavior, viewed as a mental disorder.

neuroses Mental disorders such as depression that, in Freudian theory, are strategies for coping with repressed sexual conflicts.

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Box 1.2 Controversies

(A) Sigmund Freud (B) Magnus Hirschfeld (1856–1939) (1868–1935)

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Sexuality Can Be Studied with a Wide Variety of Methods Investigators trained in many different disciplines make contributions to our under- standing of human sexuality. We could fill a whole book with an account of the meth- ods that are being used to study the topic. Here, we pick out some of the key areas and highlight certain research studies that illustrate the methods that are available.

Biomedical research focuses on the underlying mechanisms of sex Biomedical research is the approach that has the greatest practical impact on people’s sex lives. Here are a few examples:

zz Hormone-based contraception and abortion zz Drug treatments for reproductive cancers zz Drug treatments for erectile disorder, premature ejaculation, and low male

sex drive (with research into drug treatments for female sexual disorders being, so far, less successful) zz Methods to prevent, cure, or effectively treat sexually transmitted infec-

tions, including AIDS zz Technologies to treat infertility in women and men zz Improvements in the safety of pregnancy and childbirth

Biomedical researchers often turn to nonhuman animals to deepen their understand- ing of human nature, including human sexuality. Animal research involves studying the structure, function, and development of bodily systems that are involved in sex and reproduction. Most of the advances listed above were made possible by research using laboratory animals. In addition, researchers study the sexual behavior of ani- mals, both in the laboratory and in the wild. Although this book is titled Discover- ing Human Sexuality, we make no apology for including a great deal of information about, or derived from, nonhuman species.

Still, the introduction of modern imaging technologies has enabled the direct study in humans of topics that earlier could only be studied in animals. This is particularly true for brain function, which can now be studied with a variety of imaging tech- niques (Figure 1.5). In addition, the decipherment of the human genome is enabling all kinds of advances, such as the ability to ascertain the sex of a fetus and to diagnose certain fetal abnormalities on the basis of a simple blood sample drawn from the mother. And as we’ll discuss in Chapter 12, current research is attempting to home in on genes that influence such important traits as a person’s sexual orientation. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

One study that exemplifies the biomedical approach to sexuality was conducted by one of this textbook’s authors (Simon LeVay) about 25 years ago (LeVay, 1991). Basing his research on earlier work on laboratory animals, LeVay hypothesized that there might be structural differences between the brains of gay (homosexual) and straight (heterosexual) people. By examining the brains of deceased individuals, he found that a part of the brain involved in sexual behavior (a small region within a part of the brain known as the hypothalamus) was larger in straight men than in gay men. Other researchers extended this line of work to living people by the use of imaging techniques, and it’s now known that there are several differences in brain organization, not only between gay and straight men, but also between lesbian and straight women, as we’ll discuss in Chapter 12. Collectively, these studies helped shift our conception of homosexuality (and heterosexuality) from something that is learned or culturally imposed to something more akin to an inborn trait.

sexual orientation The direction of an individual’s sexual feelings: sexual attraction toward persons of the opposite sex (heterosexual), the same sex (homosexual), or both sexes (bisexual).

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Psychology includes diverse approaches to sexuality Psychology, the study of mental processes and behavior, has splintered into numer- ous overlapping subdisciplines, each of which tends to use distinct methods. The branch of psychology most significant to the study of sexuality is social psychol- ogy—the study of how we think about, influence, and relate to other people. Social psychologists concern themselves with all kinds of sexual matters, such as sexual attraction and relationships, violence between intimate partners, and anti-gay prejudice.

Here’s one example of how social psychologists tackle an important question relat- ing to sexuality. Researchers at UCLA, led by Neil Malamuth, have been interested in the question of whether portrayals of sexual violence in the media and pornog- raphy make men more accepting of such violence, as has been asserted by many feminists. Out of a group of male college students, half were randomly assigned to watch movies that portrayed sexual violence against women—specifically, movies in which a woman was raped but subsequently fell in love with her rapist. The other students (the control group) watched movies that contained no sexual violence. A few days later the students were given a sexual attitudes questionnaire. The results supported the feminist contention: Male students who watched sexually violent mov- ies expressed significantly more accepting attitudes toward sexual violence than the men in the control group. This and other studies have convinced the UCLA research- ers that exposure to images of sexual violence really does predispose some men to commit sexual assaults against women (Malamuth et al., 2000; Hald et al., 2010). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

psychology The study of mental processes and behavior.

social psychology The study of one’s relationship to others.

feminism The movement to secure equality for women; the study of social and psychological issues from women’s perspectives.

control group A group of subjects included in a study for comparison purposes.

Figure 1.5 Sex on the brain This shows (in red) the average pattern of activity in the brains of ten women while they were experiencing orgasm, using a technique called functional mag- netic resonance imaging (fMRI). Activity immediately prior to orgasm has been digitally sub- tracted from the image, so the image shows activity related specifically to orgasm and not to general sexual arousal. Several parts of the brain are active during orgasm, but two areas of particular interest are the amygdala and hypothalamus, both of which play important roles in the regulation of sexual feelings and behaviors. (Image courtesy of Nan Wise and Barry Komis- aruk, Rutgers University.)

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Left hypothalamus

Right amygdala

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14 chapter 1

Cognitive psychology is the study of internal mental processes. As an example, there’s a well-known stereotype that gay men are “like women” and lesbians are “like men.” How true is this? To find out, cognitive psychologists have conducted many studies comparing a variety of mental traits, skills, and attitudes in gay and straight people. Researchers at the University of Haifa, in Israel, for instance, picked empathy, which is the ability to detect and feel the emotions of other people. This trait is typically better developed in women than in men. Consistent with the stereotype, the researchers found that gay men scored higher on tests of empathy than straight men, whereas lesbians scored lower than straight women (Perry et al., 2013). Still, looking at the entire body of research in this field, gay people show a patchwork of gender-typical and gender-atypical traits, and what’s true on average is not necessar- ily true about individuals (LeVay, 2011). We review this topic further in Chapter 12.

Evolutionary psychology seeks to explain how evolution has molded our genetic endowment to favor certain patterns of sexual feelings and behaviors. One idea in evolutionary psychology is that because reproduction is so much more demanding for females than for males, genes have evolved that cause females to be very picky in their choice of sex partners. As a result, other genes have evolved that cause males to engage in competitive and risky sexual displays—displays that are intended to influence females’ choices.

It’s well established that men are more likely than women to engage in risky behaviors, but it’s not clear whether the risks we take in everyday life—such as when we cross a busy street—are actually sexual displays. To help answer this question, an international group of evolutionary psychologists descended on Britain’s University of Liverpool (Pawlowski et al., 2008). They stationed themselves near the campus’s busiest crosswalk, and over a period of 3 months they observed how 1000 men and women crossed the street (Figure 1.6). Specifically, they noted how much risk the stu- dents took in crossing (i.e., whether they crossed when vehicles were approaching) and who else was present when each person crossed. As might have been expected, the researchers found that men took more risks than women. The interesting finding, though, was that the presence of women nearby significantly increased the likelihood that a man would attempt a risky crossing, whereas the presence of men nearby did not influence his decision one way or another. Women, on the other hand, paid little or no attention to who was present, regardless of their sex, when they decided whether to cross. The researchers concluded that even a mundane act such as crossing a street can be motivated in part by the urge to engage in sexual displays—but only for men in the presence of women. Women do engage in sexual dis- plays—when they flirt, for example—but these displays don’t commonly take the form of risk-taking behavior.

Another area of psychology is concerned with ethnic and cultural diversity in sexual attitudes, behavior, and relationships. This kind of research, which is conducted primarily by cultural anthropologists, involves field- work of the kind pioneered by Margaret Mead and oth- ers. An example is the research into the concept of parti- ble paternity in Amazonia that was discussed in Box 1.1. Another example closer to home concerns the Native American tradition of “two-spirit” people—individuals who incorporate both a male and a female identity and who are accorded a special role in their communities. These people have been studied in detail by anthropology

Figure 1.6 Looking for love? Crossing the street in front of traffic can be a form of sexual display, according to research at the University of Liverpool. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

cognitive psychology The study of the information-processing systems of the mind.

evolutionary psychology The study of the influence of evolution on mental processes or behavior.

cultural anthropology The study of cultural variations across the human race.

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 15

gist Walter Williams, who spent a great deal of time living among Native Americans (Williams, 1986). The study of two-spirit people challenges assumptions about gen- der that are prevalent in most Western societies (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013).

Sociologists focus on the connection between sex and society Sociology is the scientific study of society. Sociologists make a unique contribution to the study of human sexuality by linking the sexual behaviors and attitudes of indi- viduals to larger social structures. Sociologists examine how sexual expression varies with age, race, national origin, religious and political beliefs, place of residence, edu- cational level, and so on. Such studies are often carried out by means of sex surveys.

We already briefly mentioned the surveys conducted by Alfred Kinsey in the mid- 20th century. With the onset of the AIDS epidemic around 1980, the need for detailed information about sexual practices and attitudes spurred a host of new sex surveys. Most notable among the surveys was one conducted by sociologists at the University of Chicago and elsewhere—the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) (Laumann et al., 1994). A comparable British survey—the National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NSSAL)—was published in the same year (Wellings et al., 1994) and has been repeated twice, most recently in 2013 (Mercer et al., 2013). Besides being more up-to-date than the Kinsey surveys, the NHSLS and NSSAL were technically superior in a number of respects, especially in their use of modern random-sampling methods and advanced techniques of statistical analysis, made possible by computers.

One interesting finding of the NHSLS concerned masturbation. This practice is often thought of as something a person does as a substitute for “real” sex when part- ners are unavailable. No doubt this is sometimes the case, but the survey findings indicate that people usually masturbate in addition to engaging in partnered sex, not as a substitute for it. In fact, women with partners masturbate more than women without them, according to the survey.

In 2010, researchers at the Center for Sexual Health Promotion at Indiana Univer- sity published findings from a new National Survey of Sexual Health and Behav- ior (NSSHB) (Reece et al., 2010b). This survey obtained responses from nearly 6000 Americans age 14 to 94. Among the findings was a gender gap in the experience of heterosexual sex: More men than women experienced orgasm during their most recent act of penile-vaginal intercourse, whereas more women than men experienced pain.

Another valuable source of information is the General Social Survey (GSS), which is run by sociologists at the University of Chicago. The GSS has been asking Americans pretty much the same questions at 1- or 2-year intervals since 1972. Using the GSS survey data it is possible to find out how people’s attitudes toward, say, sex between unmarried couples, has changed over time. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

From time to time throughout this book, we cite findings from these and other surveys. We also occasionally refer to magazine-sponsored surveys, which tend to cover intimate topics that the official surveys ignore. In 2012, for example, Esquire magazine commissioned a national random-sample survey that came up with all kinds of interesting information about current U.S. sex practices—such as that het- erosexual men’s favorite sexual position is the “cowgirl” (the woman straddling the man and facing forward) (Esquire, 2012).

Sex surveys are plagued with a variety of problems. It is often difficult to obtain truly representative samples of respondents. In addition, respondents may be reluctant to divulge details of their sex lives, especially if the information could be regarded as shameful. Kinsey tried to overcome this problem by the use of leading questions (“When did you first . . . ?” rather than “Have you ever . . . ?”). In more recent surveys researchers have attempted to reduce the embarrassment factor by

gender The collection of psychological traits that differ between males and females.

sociology The scientific study of society.

National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) A national survey of sexual behavior, relationships, and attitudes in the United States, conducted in the early 1990s.

National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NSSAL) A periodic British survey of sexual behavior, relationships, and attitudes, most recently conducted in 2013.

National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) A national survey of sexual behavior in the United States, based at Indiana University and published in 2010.

General Social Survey (GSS) A long-running periodic survey of the U.S. population run by the National Opinion Research Center.

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16 chapter 1

allowing interviewees to type their responses directly into a computer.

Random-sample surveys, even very large ones, are likely to encompass very few if any individuals who belong to “minorities within minorities,” such as Asian-American lesbians. Yet it is often these neglected groups about whom information is most needed. What’s more, when only a small percentage of the subjects belong to a certain group, their truthful responses may be swamped by frivolous responses from others. This apparently happened with a survey of U.S. adolescents called the National Longitudinal Study of Ado- lescent Health, or AddHealth: In this survey an improbably large number of students described themselves as gay, and they sometimes added other unlikely facts such as having artificial limbs or numerous children. The deception came to light in a repeat survey carried out on the same individuals when they were adults: By then the artificial limbs, the chil- dren, and the homosexuality had largely vanished (Savin- Williams & Joyner, 2013).

Sociologists are also interested in the mechanisms by which social structures (rang- ing from the family to the mass media) mold individual feelings and behaviors. One influential idea is that society gives us “scripts”—ways of presenting ourselves to others as we deal with social interactions. We can select from many different scripts and ad-lib on them too. This idea has been referred to as script theory (Reiss, 1986; Simon & Gagnon, 1986; Frith, 2009). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Here’s an example of the application of script theory to a sexual topic: Angela Bartoli and Diane Clark of Shippensburg University studied the dating scripts typi- cally used by college students. They found that men’s scripts were far more likely to involve an expectation of sex, whereas women’s scripts typically included a respon- sibility for setting limits on sexual interactions (Bartoli & Clark, 2006). This is, of course, consistent with traditional views about men’s and women’s roles in sexual negotiations. Bartoli and Clark’s finding suggest that several decades of “women’s lib” did not change this dynamic in any significant way.

Sociologists may also engage in ethnographic fieldwork, immersing themselves in their subjects’ lives in the same way that cultural anthropologists do. For exam- ple, Staci Newmahr, then a graduate student in sociology at the State University of New York (SUNY) at Buffalo, wanted to explore the lives and motivations of people who engaged in BDSM activities (Newmahr, 2011). (“BDSM” means the infliction or receipt of pain, humiliation, and the like as a sexual or recreational outlet.) To do so, Newmahr joined a BDSM club and submitted to treatments that you might consider extreme, or at least well beyond the usual requirements for a PhD. We report on some of her findings in Chapter 13.

The economic approach weighs costs and benefits How much is sex “worth?” Sometimes, as in the case of prostitution, the answer to this question can be expressed in dollar terms. But even when money doesn’t change hands, people calculate—consciously or unconsciously—the costs and benefits of sexual encounters and sexual relationships (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004). The cost may be counted not in money but in time lost from studies or career, or in the effect of a damaged reputation that lowers a person’s future value in the sexual marketplace. The benefit may not be sexual pleasure, but a secure relationship. Researchers will- ing to take a hard-nosed economic approach to these issues help us understand how much more there is to human sexuality than simple romance or “the joy of sex.”

script theory The analysis of sexual and other behaviors as the enactment of socially instilled roles.

ethnography The study of a cultural group, often by means of extended individual fieldwork.

Participants in sex surveys give more honest responses when they can do so without the presence of investigators.

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 17

As an example of this approach, let’s take a look at a study that focused on how the sex ratio (the ratio of males to females in a given population) influences sexual negotiations. A basic tenet of economic theory is that the value of scarce resources tends to rise, so if one sex is in a minority, mem- bers of that sex gain leverage in the heterosexual marketplace. Because males are typically more interested in uncommitted sex than are women, it might be expected that casual sex would be more common in popula- tions with an excess of females and less common where males are in the majority. Psychologist Nigel Barber tested this prediction by obtaining data on sex ratios and teen birthrates (a proxy indicator of uncommitted sex) in 185 countries (Barber, 2000). Sure enough, teen births were highest in countries with an excess of females, and the association was not a weak one: Nearly 40% of the variability in teen birthrates between countries could be explained by their sex ratios. In later chapters we’ll see how sex ratios impact the sex lives of Americans. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

It’s worth emphasizing that individual researchers often cross the boundaries between the various disciplines just described, or collaborate with researchers from other backgrounds. Psychologists and neurosci- entists often work together, for example. This kind of boundary cross- ing has greatly enhanced researchers’ ability to understand the roots of sexual behavior and sexual diversity.

As we have seen, women and men in a variety of academic disciplines and walks of life have made important contributions to our understand- ing of human sexuality. Increasingly, however, there is a perception that sex research, or sexology, is an academic discipline in its own right. This discipline is an unusual one in that it demands training that crosses most of the traditionally established intellectual boundaries.

Paper Human Sexuality homework help

A variety of factors make sex research especially challenging:

zz It can be difficult to obtain appropriate subjects to study. It’s easy enough to corral a classful of human sexuality students, but how representative are these of the general citizenry, let alone humanity as a whole? zz It can be difficult to phrase survey questions in ways that encourage honest responses and that don’t bias responses to conform to researchers’ preconceptions. zz It can be difficult to extrapolate from animal research to human subjects. zz It can be difficult to obtain funding for research: Conservative politicians

have taken to vetting grant applications, looking for proposals that they can ridicule or defund. On the other hand, the epidemics of AIDS, herpes, and other sexually transmitted infections have led to the investment of a great deal of public and private funds into sex-related research topics.

Numerous organizations at local, international, and global levels now foster sex research. In the United States, the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS, or “Quad-S”) publishes the Journal of Sex Research and other periodicals. The Ameri- can Association of Sexuality Educators Counselors and Therapists (AASECT) and the Society for Sex Therapy and Research (SSTAR) certify educational programs in sex education and therapy. There are also institutes devoted to research or training in issues of sexuality, such as the Kinsey Institute (which is affiliated with Indiana Uni- versity), and special-purpose organizations such as the Guttmacher Institute (which focuses on family planning issues). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

At an international level, two organizations stand out. The International Academy of Sex Research publishes the Archives of Sexual Behavior. The World Association for Sexual Health, which represents sex-research and sexual-health organizations from

Prostitution is not the only sphere in which people calculate the value of sex and sexual relationships.

sexology The scientific study of sex and sexual disorders.

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18 chapter 1

53 countries, issued a universal Declaration of Sexual Rights in 1997, and it has been updated since that time. The 2014 declaration (in abridged form) is as follows:

zz The right to equality and non-discrimination zz The right to life, liberty, and security of the person zz The right to autonomy and bodily integrity zz The right to be free from torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or

punishment zz The right to be free from all forms of violence and coercion zz The right to privacy zz The right to the highest attainable standard of health, including sexual health; with the possibility of pleasurable, satisfying, and safe sexual experiences zz The right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its application zz The right to information zz The right to education and the right to comprehensive sexuality education zz The right to enter, form, and dissolve marriage and other similar types of relationships based on equality and full and free consent zz The right to decide whether to have children, the number and spacing of children, and to have the information and the means to do so zz The right to the freedom of thought, opinion, and expression zz The right to freedom of association and peaceful assembly zz The right to participation in public and political life zz The right to access to justice, remedies, and redress

Summary zz Sexuality has changed over time, under the influence of evolution and culture. Certain modes of sexual behav- ior, such as competition for sex partners, were inherited from our nonhuman ancestors. The increasing conscious understanding of the connection between sex and repro- duction led to the development of efforts to interrupt the connection—by contraception and abortion. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

zz The establishment of large-scale societies and govern- ments led to the regulation of sexuality. Marriage in particular has undergone many changes, from a contract arranged by men to a more voluntary and egalitarian arrangement that benefits both partners. The banning of polygamy by the early Christian church laid the ground- work for greater equality in marriage. Organized religion has often established moral codes that restrict sexual expression, especially nonreproductive behaviors such as sex between same-sex partners.

zz The steep reduction in the birthrate in many countries over the last two centuries has also allowed women to take a role in marriage that goes beyond incessant pregnancy and child rearing. Marriage itself has lost some of its significance in Western societies as nonmarital cohabitation and child rearing, and at-will divorce, have become increasingly common and accepted.

zz Sexuality can be studied with a wide variety of approaches. The biomedical approach has been based primarily on studies in nonhuman animals, but recent advances, such as brain-scanning technology and the decoding of the human genome, allow for more direct study of sexual processes in humans.

zz The psychological approach falls into several subdisci- plines. Social psychology concerns itself with the diverse ways in which sex influences interpersonal relations. Cognitive psychology is focused on the mental processes, such as sexual arousal, that underlie sexual expression. Evolutionary psychology is devoted to understanding how evolutionary forces have molded our sex lives. Cul- tural anthropology investigates the influence of ethnic and cultural diversity on sexual expression.

zz Sociologists are concerned with the interactions between the sexuality of individuals and larger demographic groupings. Sex surveys are an important tool in this approach. An example of a theoretical social-science approach is sexual script theory: the notion that, as a

Go to the Discovering

Human Sexuality Companion Website at sites.sinauer.com/

discoveringhumansexuality3e for activities, study questions, quizzes, and other study aids.

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http://sites.sinauer.com/discoveringhumansexuality3e

Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 19

Discussion Questions 1. Do you think that the sexual behavior of nonhuman

animals has anything to teach us about what is morally acceptable in human sexual behavior?

2. How much does marriage or the prospect of marriage matter to you? Do you think men and women differ in how they view marriage? (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

3. What course of education would you recommend to someone who plans a career in sex research?

4. To what extent do you think that your religious upbring- ing and beliefs—or the lack of them—affect your cur- rent or future sexual and marital choices? If you’re not comfortable with this question, discuss how you believe college students should interpret the teachings of their religious leaders when making sexual decisions.

5. After reading the basics of the World Association for Sexual Health’s Declaration of Sexual Rights, do you agree with everything in it? Do you think the declara- tion fails to address any important topics? How would the principles laid out in the declaration bear on topics where there are marked differences between cultures, such as polygamy, female circumcision, prostitution, and homosexuality?

6. According to its mission statement, the Sexuality In- formation and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS) “advocates the right of individuals to make responsible sexual choices.” Should people also have the right to make irresponsible sexual choices? Where would you draw the line and on what grounds?

Web Resources American Association of Sex Educators Counselors and

Therapists (AASECT) www.aasect.org Archive for Sexology—English-language site at the

University of Berlin www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology Guttmacher Institute www.guttmacher.org International Academy of Sex Research (IASR)

www.iasr.org Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and

Reproduction www.kinseyinstitute.org

Sex Information and Education Council of Canada (SIECCAN) www.sieccan.org

Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS) www.siecus.org

Society for Sex Therapy and Research (SSTAR) www.sstarnet.org

Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS) www.sexscience.org

Statistics Canada www.statcan.gc.ca World Association for Sexual Health (WAS)

www.worldsexology.org

Recommended Reading Ellis, H. (1900). Studies in the psychology of sex. Davis.

Freud, S. (1905/1975). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Basic.

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B. & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Saunders.

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E. & Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Saunders.

Krafft-Ebing, R. v. (1886/1999). Psychopathia sexualis, with special reference to contrary sexual instinct: A clinical-forensic study. Bloat.

Masters, W. H. & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human sexual response. Little, Brown.

Masters, W. H. & Johnson, V. E. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy. Little, Brown.

Mead, M. (1928). Coming of age in Samoa: A psychological study of primitive youth for Western civilization. Morrow.

(The books listed above are historically important works but don’t necessarily represent current thinking.)

Dabhoiwala, F. (2012). The origins of sex: A history of the first sexual revolution. Oxford University Press.

Michael, R. T., Gagnon, J. H., Laumann, E. O. & Kolata, G. (1994). Sex in America: A definitive survey. Little, Brown.

Roach, M. (2008). Bonk: The curious coupling of science and sex. Norton.

Tolman, D.L. & Diamond, L.M. (Eds.) (2013). APA handbook of sexuality and psychology, Vols. 1 and 2. American Psychological Association.

result of constant interaction with others, people learn to play certain sexual roles. Sociologists also do ethno- graphic fieldwork in the environments where sexual transactions take place.

zz The economic approach to sexuality asks how the per- ceived costs and benefits of interactions within a sexual marketplace influence people’s sexual decision making.

zz Sexology, or sex research, is gradually asserting itself as an independent and multidisciplinary field of study. National and international organizations, conferences, and journals are devoted to the subject. The World Asso- ciation for Sexual Health has issued a universal Declara- tion of Sexual Rights.

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http://www.aasect.org

http://www.guttmacher.org

http://www.iasr.org

http://www.kinseyinstitute.org

http://www.sieccan.org

http://www.siecus.org

http://www.sstarnet.org

http://www.sexscience.org

http://www.statcan.gc.ca

http://www.worldsexology.org

http://www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology

2Chapter

Diversity in women’s vulvas. These life casts are among 400 that constitute The Great Wall of Vagina, by British artist Jamie McCartney.

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Women’s Bodies

Women and men are different, both in their bodies—the subject of this and the following chapters—and in their minds. Indeed, bodily differences, especially in the external genitals, are commonly used to decide whether a person is male or female. Yet many similarities and parallels exist between the bodies and minds of men and women—they are only variations on a common theme, after all. And there is considerable anatomical diversity within the categories of male and female. In fact, some babies are born with bodies that are not easy to categorize as either male or female, as we’ll discuss in Chapter 4.

By presenting women’s bodies first, we intentionally distance ourselves from the traditional perspective, which discussed women’s sex organs in terms of their equivalence to, or difference from, the sex organs of men. Neither men nor women are the “original” sex from which the other was molded: Women and men coevolved over millions of years from females and males of our ancestral species.

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22 chapter 2

A Woman’s Vulva Includes Her Mons, Labia, Vaginal Opening, and Clitoris Many girls and women have little understanding of their sexual anatomy, in part because the female external genitalia are not as prominent as those of men. In addi- tion, girls often learn that it’s not “nice” to inquire or talk about these body parts, or even to take a close look at them. Vague phrases such as “down there” may substi- tute for specific terms. Plenty of adult women—and men—do not know what the word “vagina” means and could not make a reasonable sketch of a woman’s genital anatomy. Thus, the “naming of parts” and the description of their layout is the crucial first stage of education in sexuality (Figure 2.1).

The word vulva is a scientific term that refers to the entire external genital area in a woman. The appearance of the vulva varies from woman to woman, a fact illustrated clearly in Figure 2.1B and in the body casts of 40 women pictured at the beginning of this chapter. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

The mons is a pad of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair. It lies immedi- ately in front of the pubic bone. The mons is erotically sensitive, and it may serve as a cushion for the woman’s pubic area during sex. The hair helps vaporize odors that arise in specialized sweat glands, similar to those in the armpits, and these odors may act as pheromones (chemical attractants). The mons with its pubic hair may also be a visual trigger for sexual arousal in a woman’s partner, since it is the most easily visible portion of the vulva. external genitalia The sexual structures on the outside of the body. vulva The female external genitalia. mons (or mons veneris) The frontmost component of the vulva: a mound of fatty tissue covering the pubic bone. pubic hair Hair that appears on portions of the external genitalia in both sexes at puberty.

Mons

(A)

(B)

LeVay DHS 3E Figure 02.01 09/25/14

Clitoral hood Outer labia

Inner labia

Urethral opening

Vaginal opening

Clitoris

Vestibule

Perineum

Anus

Figure 2.1 The vulva, or female external genitalia. (A) Vulva with labia drawn apart to show the vestibule, urethral opening, and vaginal opening. The perineum and anus are not part of the vulva. (B) The inner labia are quite variable in shape and color from woman to woman. (See Web Activity 2.1: The Vulva.)

02_DHS3E_CH02.indd 22 1/20/15 10:41 AM (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

http://sites.sinauer.com/discoveringhumansexuality3e/activity0201.html

women’s bodies 23

In spite of these possible functions for pubic hair, many women remove some or all of the hair by shaving, waxing, or other methods (Figure 2.2). Artistically expressive women may “vajazzle” the shaven area with sequins or crystals. Pubic hair removal is much more common among young women than among older women, according to a 2010 study by researchers at the Indiana University (Figure 2.3). However, the New York Times reports that some women are going back to the natural look, led by Hol- lywood actresses who either announced that they gave up hair removal or showed off their pubic hair in nude scenes (Meltzer, 2014). Many cultures (such as that of Japan) have viewed abundant pubic hair as highly erotic.

The labia (Latin for “lips”) are two pairs of skin folds that extend down from the mons on either side of the vulva. The outer labia, or labia majora, are padded with fatty tissue and are hairy on the surfaces nearest to the thighs. The skin of the outer labia is often darker than the skin elsewhere, and it is erotically sensitive, especially on the inner, hairless sides of the labia.

The inner labia, or labia minora, are two thin folds of hairless skin that lie between the two outer labia. In some women the inner labia are only visible after parting the outer labia; in other women they protrude to variable degrees (see Figure 2.1B). The inner labia meet at the back of the vulva, and also at the front, where they form the clitoral hood. The left and right inner labia generally touch each other in the mid- line when the woman is not aroused, and the area encircled by the labia is called the vestibule. labia Two pairs of skin folds that form the sides of the vulva. outer labia (or labia majora) Fleshy skin folds, partially covered in pubic hair, that extend from the mons. inner labia (or labia minora) Thin, hairless folds of skin located between the outer labia and immediately flanking the vestibule. clitoral hood A loose fold of skin that covers the clitoris. vestibule The potential space be- tween the left and right inner labia. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Figure 02.02 DHS 3E LeVay Baldwin Sinauer Associates 09.25.14

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 2.2 Pubic hair—love it or loathe it? (A) Gustave Courbet’s 1866 painting The Ori- gin of the World put natural pubic hair front and center. (B) A Brazilian wax removes all pubic hair except a narrow strip. (C) Complete removal of pubic hair.

DHS3E_0203.eps DHS 3E LeVay Baldwin Sinauer Associates 09.25.14

Total removal Partial removal No removal

(A) (B)

Women age 18–24

Women age 40–49

58.5%

12.4%

29.1%

49.7%

27.8% 22.5%

Figure 2.3 Removal of pubic hair These charts compare hair removal practices in (A) young and (B) middle-aged women, based on a nonrandom survey of 2451 sexually active women. “Total removal” means that women were completely hairless at least once in the prior month. (After Herbenick et al., 2010d.)

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My Vision As A Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Assignment Help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

My Vision As A Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Assignment Help

****USE THE ATTACHED TEMPLATE AND SCHOLAR PAGE ATTACHMENT INFORMATION TO CONTINUE WRITING THE ASSIGNMENT***

This assignment asks you to now put your ideas together in your vision as a practitioner-scholar:

Your purpose in psychology.
Your meaningful goals.

The assignment also provides the opportunity to receive feedback from your instructor to help you further clarify your vision of your future in the field of psychology. Complete the following:

Review the answers you provided in the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Worksheet, if you had chosen to complete the optional worksheet.
Review your formatted assignment in the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Template one last time to complete any last refinements.
Review the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Scoring Guide one last time to make sure you meet all the requirements for your assignment.

As you write this assignment, consider the following:

Purpose: The purpose of your vision is to create an inspirational and realistic description for how you want to contribute to your specialized field of psychology based on your passions and interests.
Primary Audience: Because this is a personal vision statement for your future career, you are your primary audience. Envision yourself in a time where you are frustrated and want to throw in the towel. What would help you remember your purpose and inspire you to continue moving forward towards your vision?
Secondary Audience: Your vision should also be clear to other people (such as family, friends, and your instructor) so you can share it with them and receive support in achieving it.
References: Reference any supporting documents you used to create your vision.
Assignment Requirements: Be sure to comply with the requirements stated below.

Your writing in this assignment should not just be a collection of notes, lists, or questions and answers. Instead, it should be a well-organized discussion that flows logically from one idea to the next.

Instructions

Complete the following in your assignment template:

Role as a Practitioner-Scholar: Draw from your previous study of the practitioner-scholar model to answer the following:
- In your own words, explain McClintock’s scholar-practitioner model.
- Reference Capella’s Learning Model Quick Reference and Examples to compare the differences between the levels of practitioner-scholar and scholar-practitioner.
- What will it mean to you to be a practitioner-scholar? Explain how the practitioner-scholar model can help guide you in developing the knowledge and skills that you will need to reach your professional vision and goals.
- Be sure to cite your sources.
Vision: In response to feedback you have received and the evolution of your ideas since you began, and in light of what you have learned about the practitioner-scholar model, revise and refine the vision statement that you developed in the previous two units so it is as personally meaningful as possible. This statement should articulate how your passions and interests connect to a specialization in psychology. Note: It may be useful to update your Articulating Your Purpose activity to help support these revisions.
Goals: Review the long-term educational, career, and life goals that you identified as relevant to achieving your vision. In response to feedback you have received and the evolution of your ideas since your earlier drafts, revise, expand, refine, and consolidate your goals as needed.
- Identify significant milestones for each goal. Be sure that your goals and milestones are:
  - Specific.
  - Measurable.
  - Achievable.
  - Relevant.
  - Time-bound.
- Discuss the reasons for each goal and milestone.

After completing a draft of the previously outlined sections of your paper, draft these sections in the assignment template:

Title page in APA format.
Abstract: A concise summary of every main point in the paper.
Introduction: A concise overview of the paper’s content.
Conclusion: A concise summary of important points of the paper, explaining the benefits of achieving your future career vision and becoming a practitioner scholar in the field of psychology and the importance and relevance of your vision and goals to your personal and professional aspirations.
References in APA format.

For more information, see the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Template in the resources.

Example assignment: You may use the assignment example, linked in the Resources, to give you an idea of what a Proficient or higher rating on the scoring guide would look like.

Additional Requirements

Your assignment should also meet the following requirements:

Template: Use the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Template to format your assignment.
Length: 3–4 typed and double-spaced content pages in Times New Roman 12-point font. The title page, abstract, and reference list are not included in this length.
References: Include a minimum of three references from scholarly literature. All references need to be cited in-text, according to current APA standards. Remember that citations are to support your thoughts, not take the place of them!
Written communication: Must be clear, with correct spelling, grammar, and syntax and with good organization.
Writing style: APA expectations for scholarly writing include the use of third-person narrative, unless it is awkward to do so. However, because you are talking about yourself in this paper, you may write in the first person.
APA formatting: Must be formatted according to APA style and formatting and include a title page, abstract, and reference list. Note that these three elements are not counted toward the length of your assignment.

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Milestone Two: Draft Of Billing, Marketing, And Reimbursement

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Milestone Two: Draft Of Billing, Marketing, And Reimbursement

HCM 345 Milestone Two Guidelines and Rubric

Overview: Much of what happens in healthcare is about understanding the expectations of the many departments and personnel within the organization. Reimbursement drives the financial operations of healthcare organizations; each department affects the reimbursement process regarding timelines and the amount of money put into and taken out of the system. However, if departments do not follow the guidelines put into place or do not capture the necessary information, it can be detrimental to the reimbursement system.

An important role for patient financial services (PFS) personnel is to monitor the reimbursement process, analyze the reimbursement process, and suggest changes to help maximize the reimbursement. One way to make this process more efficient is by ensuring that the various departments and personnel are exposed to the necessary knowledge.

Milestone Two provides you an opportunity to engage with real-world data and tools that you would encounter in an actual professional environment. Specifically, you will begin thinking about reimbursement in terms of billing and marketing. Reimbursement is a complex process with several stakeholders; this milestone allows you to begin thinking about the key players, including third-party billing, data collection, staff management, and ensuring compliance. Marketing and communication also plays a vital role in reimbursement; this milestone offers a chance to begin analyzing effective strategies and their impact. Prompt: Submit your draft of Sections III and IV of the final project. Specifically, the following critical elements must be addressed:

III. Billing and Reimbursement

a. Analyze the collection of data by patient access personnel and its importance to the billing and collection process. Be sure to address the importance of exceptional customer service.

b. Analyze how third-party policies would be used when developing billing guidelines for patient financial services (PFS) personnel and administration when determining the payer mix for maximum reimbursement.

c. Organize the key areas of review in order of importance for timeliness and maximization of reimbursement from third-party payers. Explain your rationale on the order.

d. Describe a way to structure your follow-up staff in terms of effectiveness. How can you ensure that this structure will be effective? e. Develop a plan for periodic review of procedures to ensure compliance. Include explicit steps for this plan and the feasibility of enacting this plan

within this organization.

IV. Marketing and Reimbursement

a. Analyze the strategies used to negotiate new managed care contracts. Support your analysis with research. b. Communicate the important role that each individual within this healthcare organization plays with regard to managed care contracts. Be sure to

include the different individuals within the healthcare organization. c. Explain how new managed care contracts impact reimbursement for the healthcare organization. Support your explanation with concrete

evidence or research.

d. Discuss the resources needed to ensure billing and coding compliance with regulations and ethical standards. What would happen if these resources were not obtained? Describe the consequences of noncompliance with regulations and ethical standards.

Rubric

Guidelines for Submission: Your draft must be submitted as a three- to five-page Microsoft Word document with double spacing, 12-point Times New Roman font, one-inch margins, and at least three sources, which should be cited in APA format.

Critical Elements Proficient (100%) Needs Improvement (75%) Not Evident (0%) Value

Billing and Reimbursement: Data

Analyzes the collection of data by patient access personnel and its importance to the billing and collection process, including the importance of exceptional customer service

Analyzes the collection of data by patient access personnel and its importance to the billing and collection process but does not include the importance of exceptional customer service

Does not analyze the collection of data by patient access personnel

Billing and Reimbursement: Third-

Party Policies

Analyzes how third-party policies would be used when developing billing guidelines for PFS personnel and administration when determining the payer mix for maximum reimbursement

Analyzes how third-party policies would be used but does not apply analysis toward the development of billing guidelines for PFS personnel and administration or toward the determination of the payer mix for maximum reimbursement

Does not analyze how third-party policies would be used

Billing and Reimbursement: Key

Areas of Review

Organizes and explains the key areas of review in order of importance for timeliness and maximization of reimbursement from third-party payers

Organizes and explains the key areas of review in order of importance for timeliness and maximization of reimbursement from third-party payers, but explanation is cursory or illogical

Does not organize and explain the key areas of review in order of importance for timeliness and maximization of reimbursement from third-party payers

Billing and Reimbursement:

Structure

Describes a way to structure follow-up staff in terms of effectiveness and explains rationale for effectiveness

Describes a way to structure follow-up staff in terms of effectiveness but does not explain rationale for effectiveness

Does not describe a way to structure follow- up staff in terms of effectiveness

Billing and Reimbursement: Plan

Develops a plan for periodic review of procedures to ensure compliance, including explicit steps and the feasibility of enacting the plan

Develops a plan for periodic review of procedures to ensure compliance but does not include explicit steps or does not include the feasibility of enacting the plan

Does not develop a plan for periodic review of procedures to ensure compliance

Marketing and Reimbursement:

Strategies

Analyzes the strategies used to negotiate new managed care contracts, supporting analysis with research

Analyzes the strategies used to negotiate new managed care contracts but does not support analysis with research

Does not analyze the strategies used to negotiate new managed care contracts

Critical Elements Proficient (100%) Needs Improvement (75%) Not Evident (0%) Value

Marketing and Reimbursement:

Communicate

Communicates the important role that each individual within this healthcare organization plays with regard to managed care contracts, including the different types of individuals within the organization

Communicates the important role that each individual within this healthcare organization plays with regard to managed care contracts but does not include the different types of individuals within the organization

Does not communicate the important role that each individual within this healthcare organization plays with regard to managed care contracts

Marketing and Reimbursement:

Contracts

Explains how new managed care contracts impact reimbursement for the healthcare organization, including support for explanation with concrete evidence or research

Explains how new managed care contracts impact reimbursement for the healthcare organization but does not include support for explanation with concrete evidence or research

Does not explain how new managed care contracts impact reimbursement for the healthcare organization

Marketing and Reimbursement:

Compliance

Comprehensively discusses the resources needed to ensure billing and coding compliance with regulations and ethical standards

Discusses the resources needed to ensure billing and coding compliance with regulations and ethical standards, but discussion is not comprehensive

Does not discuss the resources needed to ensure billing and coding compliance

Articulation of Response

Submission has no major errors related to citations, grammar, spelling, syntax, or organization

Submission has major errors related to citations, grammar, spelling, syntax, or organization that negatively impact readability and articulation of main ideas

Submission has critical errors related to citations, grammar, spelling, syntax, or organization that prevent understanding of ideas

Total 100%

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Item Development and Analysis Worksheet

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Item Development and Analysis Worksheet

Item Development and Analysis Worksheet

Student Name: Section: PSYC421-

PART 1: Writing Multiple Choice Test Items

Develop one multiple choice question that covers content from each of the four chapters listed below. When writing your sample questions, please keep in mind the specifications regarding item construction discussed in the textbook. Also, remember the importance of carefully crafted distractor options. Finally, please limit the number of response options to 4 (1 correct response and 3 distractors), and avoid the options of “all of the above,” none of the above,” or the like. Be sure to indicate which of the response options is the correct one.

Chapter 3 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

An estimate of the relaibility of a speed test is a measure of ?

A) the consistancy of flood

B) the consistancy of response

C) the consistancy of the response speed

D) the consistancy of the response of intensity

Chapter 4 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

Chapter 5 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

Chapter 6 Multiple Choice Question (2.5 points)

PART 2: Item Analysis: Item Difficulty Index(Cohen et al., 2013, pg. 263)

A test is only as good as its questions! When researchers, test constructors, and educators create items for ability or achievement tests, we have a responsibility to evaluate the items and make sure that they are useful and high-quality. The process that we use to evaluate test items is known as Item Analysis. When bad items are identified and eliminated from a test, that increases the efficiency, reliability and validity of the entire test! One way that we can distinguish among good and bad items is with the Item Difficulty Index.

Part 2A: Calculating Item Difficulty

Using the data below, calculate the Item Difficulty Index for the first 6 items onQuiz 1 from a recent section of PSYC101. For each item, “1” means the item was answered correctly and “0” means it was answered incorrectly. Type your answers in the spaces provided at the bottom of the table. (1 pt. each)

PSYC101 Quiz 1 Item Distribution and Total Scores
Examinee	Item 1	Item 2	Item 3	Item 4	Item 5	Item 6	Total Score
Andre	1	1	1	1	1	1	16
Allison	1	1	1	1	0	0	7
Heather	1	1	1	1	0	0	10
Corey	1	1	0	1	1	1	17
Christina	0	0	1	1	0	1	3
Jeffrey	0	1	1	1	0	0	11
Shawn	1	1	1	1	0	1	14
Dana	0	0	1	1	0	1	10
Megan	1	1	1	1	0	1	13
David	0	1	1	1	0	1	12
Isabel	0	0	0	1	0	0	4
Lance	1	1	1	1	0	0	9
Aliyah	1	1	1	1	0	1	15
Blaire	0	1	1	1	0	1	12
Gabriel	0	0	1	1	0	0	6
Item Difficulty	53.333	73.333	86.667	100	13.333	60

Part 2B: Calculating Optimal Item Difficulty (.5 pt. each)

1. For a test item with two response options (e.g., true/false), what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

2. Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with two response options.

3. For a test item with three response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

4. Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with three response options.

5. For a test item with four response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

6. Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with four response options.

7. For a test item with five response options, what is the probability of selecting the correct answer by chance?

8. Calculate the optimum level of difficulty for a test questions with five response options.

PART 3: Item Analysis: Item Discrimination Index(Cohen et al., 2013, pg. 265–266)

Another way that test creators can distinguish between good and bad items is with an analysis called the Discrimination Index. The discrimination index measures how well an individual test item distinguishes between high scorers and low scores on the test. An item is considered to be “good” if most of the high scorers get it right, and most of the low scorers get it wrong.

Interpreting the Discrimination Index (d)

· The discrimination index can range from -1.0 to 1.0.

· The closer d is to 1.0, the better the item discriminates between high and low scorers

· The closer d is to 0, the more poorly the item discriminates between high and low scorers.

· An item with a negative discrimination index is considered a “negative discriminator” because more low scorers get the item correct than high scorers.

· A discrimination index of 1.0 means all the high scorers got the item correct and all of the low scorers got it incorrect.

· A discrimination index of -1.0 means all of the low scorers got the item correct and all of the high scorers got it incorrect.

· Items with d’s close to 0 or with negative d’s ought to be eliminated from the test!

Calculating the Item Discrimination Index (d)

Calculate the item discrimination index (d) for the 7 hypothetical test items presented below. Type your answers in the spaces provided at the right of the table (1 pt. each).

Item #	U	L	n	d
Item 1	21	17	25
Item 2	23	7	25
Item 3	25	0	25
Item 4	3	24	25
Item 5	22	3	25
Item 6	0	25	25
Item 7	19	6	25

Based on your calculations above, answer the following questions (1 pt. each).

1. Which item discriminates the best?

2. Which item discriminates most poorly?

3. Based on your analysis, identify which two items would you choose to eliminate from this test and explain why you would eliminate each.

Part 4: Item Characteristic Curves (Cohen et al., pg. 268–270)

Another method that test creators can use to assess the usefulness of test items is with Item Characteristic Curves. Item characteristic curves provide a graphical depiction of examinees’ performance on individual test items. As indicated in the figure below, Total Test Score is plotted on the x-axis of the curve, while proportion of examinees who got the item correct is plotted on the y-axis

Using the figure above, provide a written description of how test items A–D discriminate among examinees at various levels of performance. In your responses, discuss why each item would be considered a “good” or a “bad” item. EXAMPLE: “This item discriminates well among high scores, but doesn’t discriminate well among low scorers. So this item would be considered a good item because it discriminates at the highest levels of performance.” (2 pt. each)

Item A:

Item B:

Item C:

Item D:

Item E:

Part 5: Qualitative Item Analysis (Cohen et al., pg. 272–274)

Qualitative item analysis refers to a set of non-statistical procedures used to gather information about the usefulness of test items. These analyses typically involve interviews, panel discussions, questionnaires and other forms of verbal exchange with test-takers to explore how individual test items work.

As an online student, you have a very different test-taking experience than residential students. Based on your readings from Chapter 8, identify 4 topics related to online test taking, and create 4 qualitative questions that you could ask online test-takers to gain an understanding of their experiences with test-taking. Also, as students at a Christian institution of higher education, course assignments/assessments are supposed to give students an opportunity to integrate course content with their Christian worldview. Given the topic of faith and learning, create one qualitative question that you could ask test-takers.

Qualitative Item Analysis
Topic (1 pt. each)	Sample Question for Test-Takers (1 pt. each)

Assignment Scoring

Part 1 Subtotal:

Part 2 Subtotal:

Part 3 Subtotal:

Part 4 Subtotal:

Part 5 Subtotal:

TOTAL SCORE:

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Psychology homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

PSYCH/610 Version 2

Qualitative vs. Quantitative Research

Use the table below to answer the following:

· Define and distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research.

· Provide examples of qualitative and quantitative research.

· Imagine that you are a researcher interested in identifying the components of ‘giftedness’ in pre-teen children. What quantitative methods might you use to help you better understand the experience of giftedness? What qualitative methods might you use?

· What are the advantages and disadvantages of each approach?

Definition

Examples

Examples of methods to study ‘giftedness’

Advantages

Disadvantages

Quantitative

Research

Qualitative

Research

Week Three Homework Exercise

PSYCH/610 Version 2

Week Three Homework Exercise

Answer the following questions covering material from Ch. 6 & 7 of Methods in Behavioral Research:

1. What is reactivity? Explain how reactivity impacts measurement.

2. What are the key features of an experimental design, or ‘true experiment’? How does this compare to case studies?

3. What is survey research and when is it most useful?

4. What issues should be considered when constructing surveys? What are the implications of double-barreled, loaded, and negative questions?

5. What are some survey administration methods? When are each of these methods most appropriate?

6. Define interview bias and provide an example.

7. What is the difference between probability and non-probability sampling techniques?

8. A researcher attends an art reception in a major metropolitan city. She decides to approach people over the age of 50 and ask them to fill out a brief survey about purchasing artwork. Is this a probability or a non-probability sampling technique? What type of sampling procedure is this—simple random, stratified random, cluster, haphazard, purposive, or quota?

9. What is the relationship between sample size and survey results? What are some techniques to evaluate potential sampling bias?

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Wk 3 Psychology homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Wk 3 Psychology homework help

Resources for this week’s question, please incorporate resources into answer.

Babbie, E. (2017). Basics of social research (7th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

· Chapter 15, “Reading and Writing Social Research”

· Laureate Education (Producer). (2016b). Literature review [Video file]. Baltimore, MD: Author.

· Note: The approximate length of this media piece is 8 minutes.

· Dr. Patton speaks about the role of literature in the research process.

· Accessible player –Downloads– Download Video w/CC Download Audio Download Transcript

Brown, M. (2013). Developing social problems into research problems for graduate study [Online webcast]. Retrieved from Evaluating Use of Literature and Problem Statement

Researchers use scholarly literature for various purposes in their work, such as, but not limited to, establishing the need for and importance of their study or describing a theory. The problem statement is typically tied to the literature, and for this reason, these two components of research are presented together this week; this connection among research components will be a recurring theme throughout this course.

For this Discussion, you will evaluate the use of literature and problem statements in assigned journal articles in your discipline to understand what it means for a research study to be justified, grounded, and original. You will use the Use of Literature Checklist, the Problem Statement Checklist, and the Litmus Test as guides for your post.

With these thoughts in mind, refer to the Journal Articles document for your assigned articles for this Discussion. If your last name starts with A through L, use Article A. If your last name starts with M through Z, use Article B. Follow the prompt below for your program.

Master’s and research doctorate (PhD) students

By Day 4

Post a critique of the research study in which you:

· Evaluate the authors’ use of literature using the Use of Literature Checklist as a guide

· Evaluate the research problem using the Problem Statement Checklist as a guide

· Explain what it means for a research study to be justified and grounded in the literature; then, explain what it means for a problem to be original using the Litmus Test as a guide

Be sure to support your Main Issue Post and Response Post with reference to the week’s Learning Resources and other scholarly evidence in APA Style.

Stedman-Smith, M., DuBois, C. L., & Grey, S. F. (2015). Hand hygiene performance and beliefs among public university employees. Journal of Health Psychology, 20(10), 1263–1274. doi: 10.1177/1359105313510338

By Day 4

Post a critique of the research study in which you:

Evaluate the authors’ use of literature using the Use of Literature Checklist as a guide.
Evaluate the problem using the Problem Statement Checklist as a guide.
Explain what it means for a research study to be justified and grounded in the literature; then, explain what it means for a problem to be original using the Litmus Test as a guide

· https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=udfldYXvUxw&feature=youtu.be

Problem Statement Checklist Use the following criteria to evaluate an author’s problem statement:

• Is a problem identified that leads to the need for this study?

• Is a rationale or justification for the problem clearly stated?

• Is the problem framed in a way that is consistent with the research approach?

• Does the statement convey how the study will address the problem?

• Are the citations to literature current (i.e., within the past 5 years with the exception of seminal works)?

Use of Literature Checklist

Use the following criteria to evaluate an author’s use of literature.

• Look for indications of the following ways the author used literature:

• Introduce a problem

• Introduce a theory

• Provide direction to the research questions and/or hypotheses

• Compare results with existing literature or predictions

• Did the author mention the problem addressed by the study?

• Is the purpose of the study stated?

• Are key variables in the study defined?

• Is information about the sample, population, or participants provided?

• Are the key results of the study summarized?

• Does the author provide a critique of the literature?

• Are sources cited to support points?

• Are the citations to recent literature (within the past 5 years with the exception of seminal works)?

• Does the literature justify the importance of the topic studied?

Litmus Test for a Doctoral-Level Research Problem

Background on these “litmus test” questions

· The distinguishing characteristic of doctoral-level research (as opposed to masters level) is that it must make an original contribution to the field. However, students may struggle to identify what will authentically contribute to their field or discipline.

· The most critical step in making such a contribution is to first identify a research problem with the 4 doctoral hallmarks below. Identifying a doctoral-level research problem is “necessary, but not sufficient,” to produce doctoral-level capstone.

REQUIRED DOCTORAL HALLMARKS OF THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

In Walden’s scholar-practitioner model, a research problem shows promise of contributing meaningfully to the field ONLY if the answer to ALL of the following questions is “yes.”

Yes

1. JUSTIFIED?

Is there evidence that this problem is significant to the professional field?

There must be relevant statistics (expressing an unjust inequality, financial impact, lost efficiency, etc.), documentable discrepancies (e.g., two models that are difficult to reconcile), and/or other scholarly facts that point to the significance and urgency of the problem. The problem must be an authentic “puzzle” that needs solving, not merely a topic that the researcher finds interesting.

2. GROUNDED IN THE LITERATURE?

Can the problem be framed in a way that will enable the researcher to either build upon or counter the previously published findings on the topic?

For most fields, this involves articulating the problem within the context of a theoretical or conceptual framework. Although there are multiple ways to ground a study in the scientific literature, the essential requirement is that the problem is framed in such a way that the new findings will have implications for the previous findings.

3. ORIGINAL?

For research doctorates (Ph.D.):

Does the problem reflect a meaningful gap in the research literature?

For the professional doctorates (Ed.D. and D.B.A.):

Does the problem describe a meaningful gap in practice?

4. AMENABLE TO SCIENTIFIC STUDY?

Can a scholarly, systematic method of inquiry be applied to address the problem?

The framing of the problem should not reveal bias or present a foregone conclusion. Even if the researcher has a strong opinion on the expected findings, scholarly objectivity must be maximized by framing the problem in the context of a systematic inquiry that permits multiple possible conclusions.

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Social Psychology Essay homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Social Psychology Essay homework help

925 North Spurgeon Street, Santa Ana, CA 92701

www.calcoast.edu Phone: 714-547-9625 Fax: 714-547-5777

12/14

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Tracking Your Academic Activities Verifying an accurate course completion time is essential for accreditation. To meet both accreditation requirements and award academic credit, educational institutions must document the total number of hours students spend completing designated academic activities related to their coursework.

The total hours are then translated into academic credit based on a prescribed method of measuring educational attainment known as the Carnegie Unit. 90 hours of student preparation time and 45 hours of student engagement time are required for a 3 credit hour course.

Using the attached form as an example, keep track of the time you spend on each lesson, pre-test, self-test, unit test, writing assignment, reading assignment, outside reading, final examination, etc. You will not be required to turn in the worksheet; however, at the end of the course you will receive a Student Course Survey and the final question will ask how long it took you to complete the course. Your assistance in completing this requirement and providing the university with this valuable data is greatly appreciated.

As you fill out the worksheet, please keep in mind that your Academic Engagement Activities should total approximately 45 hours. Some examples of this type of activity may include:

Lesson Review Exercises

Key Term Reviews

Analysis

Study Guide Review

Writing Assignments

Review Grading Rubric

Unit Examinations

Proctored Final Examination

Course Academic Online Discussions

Student/Instructor Interaction

Documents/Student Resources

As you fill out the Academic Preparation Activities, please keep in mind that these should total approximately 90 hours. Some samples of this type of activity may include:

Pre-Test

Reading Assignments

Key Term Reviews

Studying for Examinations

Writing Assignments

Review Grading Rubric

Study Lesson Review Exercises

Internet/Web Research

Reading Websites

Suggested Readings

Table of Contents

xxxiv

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Syllabus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . vii-xx

Unit One Chapter 1: Introduction to Sociological Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . 1

Chapter 2: Perspectives in Sociological Social Psychology . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

Chapter 3: Studying People . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19

Unit 1 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28

Unit 1 Examination. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

Unit 1 Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34

Unit Two

Chapter 4: The Social Psychology of Stratification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36

Chapter 5: Self and Identity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45

Chapter 6: Socialization Over the Life Course . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54

Unit 2 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Unit 2 Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64

Unit 2 Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69

Unit Three

Chapter 7: The Social Psychology of Deviance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Chapter 8: Mental Health and Illness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80

Chapter 9: Attitudes, Values and Behaviors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 89

Unit 3 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98

Unit 3 Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99

Unit 3 Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104

Unit Four Chapter 10: The Sociology of Sentiment and Emotion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106

Chapter 11: Collective Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115

Unit 4 Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124

Unit 4 Examination . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 125

Unit 4 Writing Assignment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

Final Examination Instructions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132

Final Exam Scheduling Form . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter One Introduction to Sociological Social Psychology

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Define social psychology.

2. Differentiate between macrosociology and microsociology.

3. Compare and contrast sociologists and psychologists’ approach to social psychology.

4. Identify the three major perspectives in sociological social psychology.

• Read pages 1-24 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter is designed to give students an understanding of how sociologists study social psychology and its role in the larger field of sociology. Students will gain an understanding of the distinction between psychology and sociology and be able to explain the major sociological social psychology perspectives.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Breaching experiments:

Culture:

Ethnomethodology:

Macrosociology:

Organizations:

Psychology:

Roles:

Social norms:

Social psychology:

Sociological imagination:

Symbolic interactionism:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Sociology is the study of society. Sociologists look at society from both the macro and the micro level of analysis. Both psychological and sociological social psychologists study the social contexts of human thoughts, feelings and behaviors. Sociologists, however, also apply the perspectives and methods of the field of sociology to the study of social psychology.

Sociology was first defined in 1838 by French social philosopher, August Comte, who applied the principles of the scientific method to society. Some of the founders of sociological social psychology include George Herbert Mead, W.E.B. Dubois, William Thomas, Charles Horton Cooley and George Simmel. Three major perspectives in sociological social psychology include symbolic interactionism, social structure and personality and group processes.

Sociologists use a tool kit consisting of methods and concepts for studying the role of society in social psychological processes. Their tools include such concepts as statuses, roles, norms and values, culture and social institutions—which they apply to the study of human thoughts—feelings and behavior.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. How can macrosociological perspectives be used to study individual, micro-level interactions?

a. Macrosociological conditions may cause some individual-level conditions to exist in the first place. b. Differences in our macrosociological conditions may change the way we react to life events. c. Life events that affect us the most are often caused by societal conditions. d. All of the above.

2. Janna wanted to study the effects of population size on individuals’ decision to commit suicide. Which social psychological perspective is she most likely to use?

a. psychology b. sociology c. sociological social psychology d. psychological social psychology

3. Which macrosociological perspective views society as social systems composed of parts that serve to keep the system working properly?

a. conflict perspective b. symbolic interactionism c. behavioralism d. structural functionalism

4. Joe started noticing that kids from the upper classes tend to get accepted at better colleges than the kids from the middle and lower classes. His analysis probably comes from which macrosociological perspective?

a. conflict perspective b. symbolic interactionism c. behavioralism d. structural functionalism

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

5. Sociological social psychology is different from psychological social psychology because:

a. it focuses on the effects of societal conditions on individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behavior. b. it incorporates sociological perspectives and theories to explain individuals’ thoughts, feelings and behavior. c. it is a subfield of sociology, not psychology. d. All of the above.

6. Social psychology is the systematic study of individual thoughts, feelings and behavior in a social context. Which of the following social contexts are more likely to be studied by sociologists than psychologists?

a. small groups b. family interactions c. ethnic groups d. friendship groups

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Breaching experiments: Experiments that violate the established social order to assess how people construct social reality.

Culture: A society’s set of unique patterns of behavior and beliefs.

Ethnomethodology: A method of studying society through observation of people’s typical day-to-day interactions.

Macrosociology: The study of large-scale social processes.

Organizations: Groups that share a common purpose and contain a formal set of rules and authority structure.

Psychology: The study of human thought processes and behaviors.

Roles: A set of expectations about how to behave in a group.

Social norms: The rules that regulate our behavior in relationships.

Social psychology: The systematic study of people’s thoughts, feelings and behavior in social contexts.

Sociological imagination: The ability to see personal lives in the context of the larger society— its history, culture and social structure.

Symbolic interactionism: A perspective within sociological social psychology that emphasizes the study of how people negotiate the meaning of social life during their interactions with other people.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. d

2. c

3. d

4. a

5. d

6. c

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Two Perspectives in Sociological Social Psychology

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish the major principles of the symbolic interaction perspective.

2. Define what it means to “construct” the world around us.

3. Characterize the social structure and personality perspective.

4. Identify key elements of the group processes perspective.

5. Consider elements of group structure.

• Read pages 25-53 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter provides an extensive review of three major perspectives in sociological social psychology. Students will learn about the history, theoretical and empirical importance of the three perspectives. The chapter begins with an overview of the history and tenets of symbolic interactionism. This is followed by a review of the two major schools of symbolic interactionism.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Agency:

Collective behavior:

Components principle:

Frame analysis:

Legitimacy:

Proximity principle:

Psychology principle:

Reference groups:

Social scripts:

Thomas theorem:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

There are three broad perspectives in sociological social psychology: symbolic interactionism, social structure and personality and group processes.

Symbolic interactionism is the study of how people negotiate meaning during their interactions with others. Within this approach, two schools of symbolic interactionism exists: the Chicago school and the Iowa and Indiana schools.

The social structure and personality perspective emphasizes how social structure affects individuals within a society. Structural forces include status, roles and social networks.

The group processes perspective focuses on interactions that occur within groups, characteristics of groups and relationships among groups. Processes studied by those in the group processes perspective include power, status, justice and legitimacy.

A group’s behavior is influenced by structural conditions including its size and its function. Group research may focus on structure or on other aspects of group processes, such as the relationship between groups and the behavior of larger groups of people called collective behavior.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Which social theorists are most associated with the concept of the social construction of reality?

a. Marx and Engels b. Thomas and Thomas c. Berger and Luckmann d. Blumer and Mead

2. A local fraternity developed a special hand signal whenever they see each other on the university quad. In symbolic interactionist terms, this signal has become a ______________ for this group.

a. meaningful exchange b. important source of pride c. language d. symbol

3. Terence started to believe that a friend at work is really a spy from another company, leading him to avoid interactions with that person as much as possible. Ultimately, he treats all interactions with her as suspect, making him reluctant to share any work-related information with her. Which of the following best explains Terence’s behavior?

a. components principle of the social structure and personality perspective b. the Thomas theorem c. the peter principle d. the group processes concept of legitimacy

4. Who coined the expression “symbolic interaction”?

a. Emile Durkheim b. Herbert Blumer c. August Comte d. George Herbert Mead

5. Professor Swanson is studying the meaning of “goodness” using a survey of public attitudes toward the topic. Which school of symbolic interaction is she most likely using in her research?

a. the Chicago school b. the Indiana/Iowa school c. the Swanson school d. the sociological social psychology school

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Socioeconomic status (social class), race or ethnicity, gender, age and sexuality all relate to which principle of the social structure and personality perspective?

a. components principle b. proximity principle c. psychology principle d. peter principle

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Agency: The ability to act and think independent of the constraints imposed by social conditions.

Collective behavior: The action or behavior of people in groups or crowds.

Components principle: Within the social structure and personality perspective, the ability to identify the elements or components of society most likely to affect a given attitude or behavior.

Frame analysis: The process by which individuals transform the meaning of a situation using basic cognitive structures provided by society.

Legitimacy: The perception that a social arrangement or position is the way that things should be.

Proximity principle: Element of the social structure and personality perspective referring to how people are affected by social structure through their immediate social environments.

Psychology principle: Element of the social structure and personality perspective referring to how individuals internalize proximal experiences.

Reference groups: People we look to as a source of standards and identity.

Social scripts: The appropriate thoughts, feelings and behaviors that should be displayed in a particular social frame.

Thomas theorem: Theorem stating that when people define situations as real, the consequences of those situations become real.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. c

2. d

3. b

4. b

5. b

6. a

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Three Studying People

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Become acquainted with the vocabulary of social science research.

2. Differentiate qualitative sociology from quantitative sociology.

3. Determine major forms of qualitative and quantitative research.

4. Assess how social scientists begin to develop a research project.

• Read pages 54-82 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The goal of this chapter is to provide an overview of the techniques sociological social psychologists use to study people, emphasizing theoretical differences on the appropriate means of obtaining social-psychological data.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Categorical variables:

Ethnography:

Focus groups:

Indices:

Interval variables:

Ordinal variables:

Population:

Qualitative research methods:

Reliability:

Snowball sample:

Validity:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Several concepts apply to almost any research project. Researchers regularly use terms such as theory, research questions or hypotheses and variables to describe ways of studying people.

Researchers employ qualitative and quantitative techniques to study human subjects. Qualitative research methods include field research and in-depth interviews. Quantitative methods include survey research and experiments.

The steps in developing most research projects include assessing the theory and literature of the research topic, developing research questions or specific hypotheses, choosing the appropriate research methods, conducting data analysis and reporting the results.

Although there is no rule about whether a particular theory should or should not use quantitative or qualitative methods to study people, symbolic interactionists have traditionally relied more on qualitative methods. Many researchers try to employ multiple methods of studying a particular phenomenon.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. How are social theories and hypotheses related to one another?

a. Theories include general statements about social relationships while hypotheses are more specific statements about how variables will relate to one another. b. Theories are an extension of hypotheses. c. Theories are used to develop hypotheses. d. both a and c

2. Samantha started a research project predicting that men would be more supportive of using military forces to go to war than women. In this case, attitudes toward going to war is what kind of variable?

a. index b. scale c. independent variable d. dependent variable

3. In preparing for a survey of country club members, Donella asked the manager of the club for a list of members. This list refers to a _______________.

a. random sample b. probability sample c. sample list d. sampling frame

4. Which of the following types of samples is considered most representative of any given population?

a. random sample b. convenience sample c. snowball sample d. both b and c

5. An instructor asks you to develop a study of the homeless that will provide a great deal of depth into what it is like to be homeless. Given this mandate, which of the following methods would most likely give the information you need for such a project?

a. ethnography b. focus group c. survey d. experiment

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. A sample in which any available person is included in the study is known as a ____________ sample.

a. true b. convenience c. odd d. real time

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Categorical variables: Measures for which the possible responses have no particular order.

Ethnography: A form of field research that includes a descriptive analysis of a group or organization.

Focus groups: Semistructured interviews with small groups of people.

Indices: A series of related questions designed to measure a concept such as mastery.

Interval variables: A type of variable in which the difference between any two adjacent values is the same.

Ordinal variables: Variables for which response categories are ordered but the distances between adjacent categories are not necessarily equal.

Population: The larger group of people about whom a researcher seeks to draw conclusions.

Qualitative research methods: In-depth, semi-structured modes of observation or interviewing of subjects.

Reliability: When a study yields the same results using the same techniques and data.

Snowball sample: Samples in which informants provide contact information about other people who share some of the characteristics necessary for a study.

Validity: How valid or accurate the findings of the study are.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. d

2. a

3. d

4. a

5. a

6. b

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 1 Examination Instructions

The Unit Examination

The unit examination contains 25 multiple choice questions, as well as a writing assignment.

Your grade on the examination will be determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct B = 80% – 89% correct C = 70% – 79% correct D = 60% – 69% correct F = 59% and below correct

4 grade points 3 grade points 2 grade points 1 grade point 0 grade points

Completing Unit One Examination

Before beginning your examination, we recommend that you thoroughly review the textbook chapters and other materials covered in each unit and follow the suggestions in the mastering the course content section of the syllabus.

This unit examination consists of objective test questions as well as a comprehensive writing assignment selected to reflect the learning objectives identified in each chapter covered so far in your textbook.

Additional detailed information on completing the examination, writing standards and how to submit your completed examination may be found in the syllabus for this course.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Which early sociologists emphasized the role of society in the development of the self?

a. George Herbert Mead b. Karl Marx c. Georg Simmer d. Herbert Blumer

2. Which sociological social psychology perspective emphasizes the role of meaning and the social construction of meaning in the study of social psychology?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functionalism

3. Which sociological social psychology perspective is likely to emphasize the importance of roles and statuses in the study of social psychology?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functionalism

4. Which sociological social psychology perspective is likely to emphasize the importance of interactions within groups?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functionalism

5. The sociological imagination is associated with which social theorists?

a. Emile Durkheim b. Max Weber c. C. Wright Mills d. Auguste Comte

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. The expectation to look someone in the eye when talking with them refers to a _______________.

a. norm b. role c. value d. belief

7. Derek’s job as a supervisor refers to his relative _______________ in the company while the expectations for how to behave on the job refers to his ________________.

a. role; status b. job; role c. status; role d. status; job

8. Which institution regulates sexual relations and child-rearing in society?

a. economy and work b. politics c. family d. religion

9. Which institution refers to the rituals and beliefs regarding sacred things?

a. economy and work b. politics c. family d. religion

10. Franklin did not think much about how the economy or society affects his life until he lost his job. Franklin’s internal processesing of his job loss best represents which principle from the social structure and personality perspective?

a. components principle b. psychology principle c. propinquity principle d. proximity principle

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

11. After Donna cheated on her most recent exam, she starts to feel a sense of guilt, making her reconsider whether she wants to do it again. Donna’s feelings of guilt can be considered a ______________, according to the social structure and personality perspective, leading her to rethink her future behaviors.

a. social more b. social norm c. social force d. social fear

12. Which of the following is considered a major dimension of group processes?

a. power b. justice c. legitimacy d. All of the above.

13. Janelle wants to study how and why some people are able to tell other people what to do while others can not. What aspect of group processes is she studying?

a. power b. status c. justice d. legitimacy

14. What social psychologist is most associated with the concepts of dyads and triads?

a. Emile Durkheim b. August Comte c. Herbert Blumer d. Georg Simmel

15. The difference between dyads and triads is important because:

a. moving from a dyad to a triad exponentially increases the number of relationships available in an interaction. b. moving from a dyad to a triad exponentially decreases the amount of intimacy possible in a group. c. moving from a dyad to a triad exponentially decreases the number of relationships available in an interaction. d. both a and b

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

16. A group of friends getting together for dinner represents a ______________ group while a group of people at your work represents a _____________ group.

a. reference; primary b. primary; reference c. primary; secondary d. secondary; reference

17. Bob goes to the beach on a hot summer day and is surprised when he observes a group of people dressed in formal wear sitting in beach chairs amongst sunbathers. Bob was surprised because the ______________ did not meet his expectations for that situation.

a. situation b. social scripts c. frame d. All of the above.

18. ____________ require the researcher to weigh individual items differently.

a. Indices b. Scales c. both a and b d. None of the above.

19. Which of the following methods is MOST likely to show causation?

a. ethnography b. focus group c. survey d. experiment

20. An instructor developed a study to determine ways of producing more participation in his classes. In one class she provided free donuts everyday of class while in another she gave them nothing. She had her assistant takes notes on the number of comments and questions students made in each class. Which of these classes represent the control group?

a. the class not given the donuts b. the class given the donuts c. other classes that are not part of the experiment d. both classes would be considered the control group

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

21. ____________ developed the field of operant conditioning; much of his work relied on experiments using rats and pigeons.

a. Carl Jung b. B.F. Skinner c. Sigmund Freud d. Joseph Berger

22. At what step in the research process does the researcher employ the library and other resources and conduct a literature review?

a. step 1 b. step 2 c. step 3 d. step 4

23. At what step in the research process does the researcher actually go out and collect data?

a. step 1 b. step 2 c. step 3 d. step 4

24. Research conducted by interviews, participant observations and ethnographies is referred to as what kind of research?

a. quantitative b. qualitative c. breeching d. experimental

25. Social scientists must always be concerned with _______________ and _______________ to accurately capture the phenomena in question.

a. truth and reliability b. reliability and validity c. truth and validity d. probability and validity

Unit 1 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Writing Assignment for Unit One

• Include your name, student number, course number, course title and unit number on each page of your writing assignment (this is for your protection in case your materials become separated).

• Begin each writing assignment by identifying the question number you are answering followed by the actual question itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions (i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

• Responses must be submitted as a MS Word Document only, typed double-spaced, using a standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type size.

Word count is NOT one of the criteria that is used in assigning points to writing assignments. However, students who are successful in earning the maximum number of points tend to submit writing assignments that fall in the following ranges:

Undergraduate courses: 350 – 500 words or 1 – 2 pages. Graduate courses: 500 – 750 words or 2 – 3 pages. Doctoral courses: 750 – 1000 words or 4 – 5 pages.

Plagiarism

Please answer ONE of the following:

1. Think about the concept of poverty. How would a macro-level sociologist study this concept differently than a micro-level sociologist?

2. Discuss how symbolic interactionists define the concept of society. What role do symbols and language play in the development of society?

3. Discuss the ways that group structures can impact interaction in groups. Specifically, examine how group size (i.e., dyads and triads) and types of groups (e.g., primary groups) impact interactions between people.

You Can Do It

PSY 228 Social Psychology

You have just completed Unit 1 of this course.

You are off to a great start!

Keep up the good work!

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Four The Social Psychology of Stratification

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Interpret how people construct inequality in society.

2. Determine how structure is linked to interactions.

3. Evaluate how stratification develops in group interaction.

4. Judge how inequalities from society-at-large get reproduced in groups.

• Read pages 84-120 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

One of the major ways that sociological social psychology is different from its counterpart in psychology is its greater emphasis on the role of stratification in social psychological processes. There are several ways in which stratification affects our lives and relationships. Symbolic interactionists sometimes address how we create and maintain definitions of different classes of people. Social structure and personality scholars emphasize how structural conditions, often related to work, education, or family settings affect people. Those in the group processes perspective examine how stratification systems from the larger society become reproduced in groups. We will use each of these perspectives to examine how stratification processes occur in our day-to-day lives.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Borderwork:

Direct exchanges:

Doing difference:

Feedback loop:

Intersectionality:

Routinization:

Social capital:

Social exchange theory:

Social stratification:

Substantive complexity:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Three ways that interactionist researchers focus on stratification processes include examining how social structure shapes who we interact with, accounting for inequalities in the content of interactions, acknowledging how people with certain status characteristics have more power in terms of role taking and examining people’s power to define situations and define themselves.

The Wisconsin Model of Status Attainment traces the relationships among individual’s class position, their abilities and their long-term occupational outcomes.

The effect of networking among individuals from different groups creates a variety of outcomes for those involved, depending on the status of the individuals in a group as well as the status of the group itself.

Values serve as a guide for making decisions about the future, ultimately affecting the types of jobs we attain and class position we have in life, producing a feedback loop between our personality and social positions.

Group processes contribute to our understanding of structural developments by studying the exchanges among individuals in groups. Exchange processes lend themselves to the development of status structures because people bring different types and quantities of resources into the process. People who contribute more to a group or have more resources generally achieve a higher status in groups.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Shirley Brice Heath’s research on the socialization of status and race among Whites and Blacks in the rural-Piedmont Carolinas is important because:

a. it shows how social class influences how we interact with other people. b. it shows how historical and social conditions can affect our day-to-day interactions. c. it shows that White people have an advantage over African-Americans in getting into good colleges. d. both a and b

2. Which perspective in sociological social psychology is more likely to examine the effects of stratification in day-to-day exchanges between people?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functionalism

3. Which of the following is the best example of “borderwork”?

a. a group of teenage boys smoking cigarettes in a high-school parking lot b. a group of girls at a slumber party c. a group of boys and girls playing “kiss and chase” d. a group of boys and girls being lectured to about poor behavior

4. Elijah Anderson’s study of inner city norms and values show that:

a. inner city residents tend to be submissive in the face of their poverty. b. inner city residents are taught to develop a toughness to deal with challenges of poverty and poor living conditions. c. most inner city residents accept most traditional norms from the larger culture. d. both b and c

5. An intersectional approach is essential to understanding the dynamics of stratification because it allows us to the look at the multitude of ways in which our statuses and positions affect our experience.

a. True b. False

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. According to the Wisconsin Model of Status Attainment, how does our social background influence our occupational status in life?

a. It shows that our social background influences with whom we spend time. b. It shows that our social background influences our mental abilities. c. It shows that our social background affects our educational levels. d. All of the above.

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Borderwork: The creation of social and physical boundaries between boys and girls.

Direct exchanges: Exchanges between two people.

Doing difference: Any way in which inequality in any form (race, class or gender) is perpetuated during our interactions as people are held accountable to the social categories in which they are a part.

Feedback loop: A process in which our class position influences the development of values that, in turn, influences the type of job we seek.

Intersectionality: The idea that race, gender and class statuses are not separate but interlocking systems of inequality.

Routinization: Part of Kohn and Schooler’s model of status attainment referring to the level of repetitiveness found on the job.

Social capital: Trust and support found in relationships with other people.

Social exchange theory: Theory based on the premise that individuals enter into relationships that provide some benefit to them and end or leave relationships that do not provide some sort of reward.

Social stratification: The ways in which individuals or groups are ranked in society.

Substantive complexity: Part of Kohn and Schooler’s model of status attainment referring to how complicated the actual work is on the job.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. d

2. a

3. c

4. d

5. a

6. d

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Five Self and Identity

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the components of the self.

2. Determine interactionist theories of the self and identity.

3. Characterize three dimensions of the self-concept.

4. Analyze what we know from research on the self-concept.

5. Interpret how group processes affect identity.

• Read pages 121-149 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter reviews the different ways that sociologists study the meaning of the concepts of self and identity and the structural and group conditions that impact the self. It will address the components of the self; interactionist theories of the self and identity; three dimensions of self- concept; and how group processes affect identity.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Affect-control theory:

Backstage:

Dramaturgical sociology:

Emotional arousal:

Identity:

Mastery:

Mattering:

Me:

Personal characteristics:

Psychological centrality:

Self:

Self-enhancement:

Self-esteem:

Self-indication:

Verbal persuasion:

Vicarious experience:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

From a symbolic interactionist perspective, the self is a process in which we construct a sense of who we are. We use symbols and language to communicate with other people, but we also use language to think internally. The self includes a dialogue between the “I” and the “Me”.

Identity includes our social categories and personal characteristics. Identity theory examines how social conditions affect the salience of identities and thus our behavior. Affect-control theory incorporates emotions in identity processes.

The self-concept refers to all our thoughts and feelings about ourselves as an object, often studied in the form of identities, self-esteem, mattering and mastery. Class, race, and gender are important social statuses that influence our self-development over time. Social identity theory argues that people define and evaluate themselves in terms of the groups they belong to, including one’s race and gender.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. What part of the self-concept is mastery?

a. the self b. self-identities c. self-evaluations d. self indication

2. Debating what other people are thinking about you in a public setting is best represented by what term?

a. self-concept b.self-identities c. self-evaluations d. self indication

3. According to Mead, which aspect of our self is out in public, constantly processing new information related to the self?

a. the “I” b. the “Me” c. self-concept d. self indication

4. Which of the following is NOT an element of identity?

a. social categories b. role identities c. personal characteristics d. self attitudes

5. Being a Canadian applies to which aspect of identity?

a. social categories b. role identities c. personal characteristics d. self attitudes

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Identity theory comes from which social-psychological perspective?

a. symbolic interaction b. social structure and personality c. group processes d. structural functional

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Affect-control theory: The theory that incorporates elements of symbolic interactionism and identity theory to explain the role of emotion in identity processes.

Backstage: Part of dramaturgical sociology referring to the region where we relax our impression management efforts.

Dramaturgical sociology: The study of how we present ourselves, playing roles and managing impressions during interactions with other people.

Emotional arousal: Inferences about our abilities based on our emotional states that we use to build our sense of mastery.

I: The part of the self that is active, engaging in interactions with others.

Identity: Our internalized, stable sense of who we are.

Mastery: Our perceptions of our ability to control things important to us.

Mattering: Our sense that we are important to other people in the world.

Me: The part of the self that includes an organized set of attitudes toward the self.

Personal characteristics: Anything we use to describe our individual nature.

Psychological centrality: Our ability to shift aspects of the self to become more or less important to our overall self-concept.

Self: A process in which we construct a sense of who we are through interaction with others.

Self-enhancement: In social identity theory, the process through which we make comparisons that favor our own groups.

Self-esteem: The positive or negative evaluation of our self as an object.

Self-indication: The use of symbols and language to communicate internally.

Verbal persuasion: Information from others about our abilities used to derive mastery.

Vicarious experience: A way of building mastery by seeing other people perform tasks; it shows us that the task is accomplishable.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. c

2. d

3. a

4. d

5. a

6. a

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Six Socialization Over the Lifer Course

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Critique how society influences the social construction of the self.

2. Chart the stages involved in developing the self.

3. Name the four elements of life-course sociology.

4. Consider agents of socialization and how they affect our lives.

5. Assess how group processes researchers study socialization.

• Read pages 150-187 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The goal of this chapter is to define socialization and the life course and the major theories and research associated with these ideas.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Agency:

Birth cohort:

Contextual dissonance:

Gender socialization:

Idiocultures:

Life course:

Life events:

Linked lives:

Looking-glass self:

Pygmalion effect:

Socialization:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Sociologists study socialization processes at every stage of development from childhood to late adulthood. The self develops through a symbolic process. An essential aspect of self-development is the ability to take the role of the other.

The sociology of childhood focuses on how children are active participants in creating culture. Life-course sociology is based on the notion that humans adapt to different situations based on their social and historical location, relative to different events and cultural “moments.” Four major themes in life-course sociology include historical context, timing, linked lives and agency.

Sociologists view agents of socialization as mediators of the larger society rather than direct causes of socialization. The family is considered the primary agent of socialization because children are raised from infancy with parents and often siblings. Schools and peers are two other important agents of socialization.

The group processes perspective often examines the role of socialization after it has occurred, reviewing, for instance, how expectations about gender or race affect group interactions.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Sammy is using dolls to represent people in a doll house. Based on Mead’s theory of child development, at what stage of development is she?

a. preparatory stage b. play stage c. game stage d. toy stage

2. A little boy playing in a baseball team is probably in which stage of development using Mead’s typology?

a. preparatory stage b. play stage c. game stage d. toy stage

3. Which social psychologist is associated with the looking-glass self?

a. George Herbert Mead b. Michel Foucault c. Georg Simmel d. Charles Horton Cooley

4. Studies have shown that factors such as parenting style, resources and status can dramatically affect the outcomes of children of divorced parents.

a. True b. False

5. Studies have found that father’s household labor participation has little effect on their son’s future household labor sharing.

a. True b. False

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Several studies have shown that there is a correlation between watching violent television and aggressive behavior.

a. True b. False

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Agency: An aspect of life-course sociology referring to our ability to improvise roles, make decisions and control our destiny.

Birth cohort: A group of people born around the same time period.

Contextual dissonance: A feeling that minority members of a group have because they are different from the majority members.

Gender socialization: Learning expectations about how to behave related to one’s gender.

Idiocultures: A system of knowledge, beliefs, behaviors and customs shared by an interacting group to which members refer and employ as a basis of further interaction.

Life course: The process of change from infancy to late adulthood resulting from personal and societal events and from transitions into and out of social roles.

Life events: Event that can cause significant changes in the course of our lives.

Linked lives: An aspect of life-course sociology referring to our relationships with other people.

Looking-glass self: How the self relies on imagined responses of others in its development.

Pygmalion effect: When children develop according to expectations of a group or society.

Socialization: The ways in which individuals attempt to align their own thoughts, feelings, and behavior to fit into a group or society.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. b

2. c

3. d

4. a

5. b

6. a

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 2 Examination Instructions

The Unit Examination

The unit examination contains 25 multiple choice questions, as well as a writing assignment.

Your grade on the examination will be determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct B = 80% – 89% correct C = 70% – 79% correct D = 60% – 69% correct F = 59% and below correct

4 grade points 3 grade points 2 grade points 1 grade point 0 grade points

Completing Unit Two Examination

Additional detailed information on completing the examination, writing standards and how to submit your completed examination may be found in the syllabus for this course.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. How does Kohn and Schooler’s model of status attainment link economic status, job characteristics and personality?

a. People with lower economic status tend to find work in jobs that have more supervision. b. People with lower economic status tend to find work in jobs that require less intellectual flexibility. c. People with less intellectual flexibility tend to seek jobs that are routinized. d. All of the above.

2. Bradley, a student at Big U, regularly seeks advice from his professor and mentor, Janet. According to exchange theory, what kind of exchange is most likely motivating Janet to stay in this relationship?

a. a direct exchange b. a reciprocal exchange c. a generalized exchange d. All of the above.

3. What was being exchanged among crew members and the captain in George Homan’s research about exchange processes on small warships?

a. support b. caring c. listening d. All of the above.

4. Who gets the most status in groups based on Bales’ research in social exchanges in small groups?

a. Those who are perceived as the best managers. b. Those who are perceived as being the smartest. c. Those who contribute the most to the group. d. Those who listen and care the most for the other members.

5. Which of the following best reflects a task group used to study status processes in groups?

a. A group of students at a class lecture. b. A group of people waiting in line to pay at a store. c. A group of citizens meeting to resolve a local problem. d. All of the above.

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Why are weak ties so important for finding work?

a. People with whom we have weak ties live and work in circles outside our own. b. People with whom we have weak ties tend to have better jobs. c. People with whom we have weak ties aren’t biased against us in the job market. d. People with whom we have weak ties provide training in getting better jobs.

7. According to status characteristics theory, gender, race and education levels are examples of _______________.

a. diffuse status characteristics b. specific status characteristics c. roles d. class positions

8. According to status characteristics theory, skill at playing basketball would be considered _______________.

a. diffuse status characteristics b. specific status characteristics c. roles d. class positions

9. People are ______________ aware of the status hierarchies that develop in task-oriented groups.

a. almost always b. usually not c. always d. None of the above.

10. Which theorist is most associated with impression management?

a. Auguste Comte b. Emile Durkheim c. Herbert Blumer d. Erving Goffman

11. According to dramaturgical sociology, what area of identity is associated with hanging out with friends while watching television?

a. front stage b. back stage c. performance stage d. informal groups

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

12. A first date would most likely be associated with what area of identity?

a. front stage b. back stage c. performance stage d. informal groups

13. Spencer Cahill’s research on “bathroom behavior” clearly showed that _______________.

a. people act very differently in bathrooms than other areas of life b. serve as “self-service” repair shops c. people use bathrooms to “retire” from their front stage presentations d. All of the above.

14. Which of the following has the strongest impact on self-esteem?

a. social comparisons b. reflected appraisals c. psychological centrality d. self-perceptions

15. _____________ are observations of our behavior and its consequences.

a. Reflected appraisals b. Self-perceptions c. Social comparisons d. Psychological centrality

16. What is the best way to build a child’s sense of mastery or efficacy?

a. personal accomplishments b. vicarious experience c. verbal persuasion d. emotional arousal

17. Rosenberg’s early research on mattering found it positively related to _______________ and negatively related to ________________.

a. self-esteem; alcoholism b. depression; self-esteem c. self-esteem; depression d. mastery; depression

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

18. Given research and theory in life-course sociology, which of the following groups are most likely to be negatively affected by Hurricane Katrina?

a. a poor White family who survived the storm together b. a poor African-American family who survived the storm together c. a middle-class White man who lost his income and had no access to family or friends during the event d. a middle-class African-American family who survived the storm together

19. Tony and Rose both received word that they were called up for active duty in the military out of the reserve component of the forces. Tony is several years older with a wife and child while Rose is just finishing college. Which dimension of life course sociology best explains why Tony is more likely to be affected by the mobilization than Rose?

a. historical context b. linked lives c. social timing d. agency

20. Which of the following is NOT considered a primary agent of socialization?

a. family b. peers c. schools d. government

21. Elder’s study of the Great Depression generally showed that ______________.

a. all children were negatively affected by growing up in the Great Depression b. only children growing up in poverty were affected by the Great Depression c. the Great Depression had the strongest impact on children’s lives by changing family roles d. both b and c

22. Kohn’s work on class socialization generally showed that middle-class families tend to stress ______________ while working-class families emphasize _______________ in raising their children.

a. autonomy; conformity b. conformity; freedom c. freedom; independence d. conformity; autonomy

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

23. Rosenthal and Jacobson’s study of classroom interaction is important because:

a. it showed that children are taught to be racist in the classroom. b. it showed that IQ scores could be manipulated based on a group prejudice. c. it showed that children’s IQ scores were not linked to race at all. d. it showed that racist beliefs and values exist in every classroom.

24. Which of the following groups are most prevalent in American schools based on Adler and Adler’s research on peer culture?

a. the popular click b. the wannabes c. middle friendship circles d. social isolates

25. Group processes researcher is important to the study of socialization in what way?

a. It shows the importance of peer-group interactions in socialization processes. b. It shows the importance of family interactions. c. It shows the importance of the media. d. It emphasizes the impact of socialization in group settings.

Unit 2 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Writing Assignment for Unit Two

• Responses must be submitted as a MS Word Document only, typed double-spaced, using a standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type size.

Undergraduate courses: 350 – 500 words or 1 – 2 pages. Graduate courses: 500 – 750 words or 2 – 3 pages. Doctoral courses: 750 – 1000 words or 4 – 5 pages.

Plagiarism

Please answer ONE of the following:

• Include your name, student number, course number, course title and unit number on each page of your writing assignment (this is for your protection in case your materials become separated).

• Begin each writing assignment by identifying the question number you are answering followed by the actual question itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions (i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

1. Describe the concept of “doing gender.” Apply this process to other statuses in society (e.g., race, ethnicity or sexuality).

2. Review the three ways that interactionists view the development and maintenance of stratification in society.

3. Discuss the similarities and differences between identity theory and social identity theory.

You Can Do It

PSY 228 Social Psychology

With Unit 2 complete, you are half way through the course.

Take a break and reward yourself

for a job well done!

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Seven The Social Psychology of Deviance

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Analyze how we define what is normal and what is deviant.

2. Determine how the construction of deviant labels contribute to the development of deviant lifestyles.

3. Judge how structural conditions influence individuals’ decisions to commit deviant acts.

4. Consider how group relationships influence the development of deviance and perceptions of deviance.

• Read pages 190-220 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter examines major sociological concepts and theories associated with the concept of deviance.

Interactionists generally view deviance as a normal part of the symbolic interaction process. Structural and group-centered views of deviance tend to focus on the social conditions that increase the likelihood of breaking laws. These views come from the larger social science specialty of criminology. This chapter emphasizes the broader sense of deviance in everyday life, before reviewing traditional theories and research on criminal forms of deviance.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Anomie:

Attachment:

Belief:

Covering:

Deviance:

Indexicality:

Labeling theory:

Reflexivity:

Social control theory:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

From a social-psychological perspective, deviance is a necessary part of the symbolic interaction process of negotiating social reality. Interactionism assumes that individuals decide to maintain (or break) social norms and standards during every interaction. Deviance allows for change in relationships and society as a whole.

Ethnomethodological perspectives of deviance emphasize how individuals construct and defend their views of social reality—the “real” boundaries of social life. People who can provide better accounts can convince others of those accounts, thus controlling the meaning of good and bad— deviance and conformity—in society.

Labeling theory is a major interactionist perspective of deviance. It is based on the notion that deviance is a consequence of a social process in which a negative characteristic becomes an element of an individual’s identity.

Strain and social control theories apply macrosociological perspectives of deviant behavior, arguing that deviance results from a larger set of societal conditions. Societal norms create limitations to how we can achieve legitimate goals in life. They also give goals that are unattainable for some people.

Groups provide both the motives and the knowledge necessary to commit crime. Differential association theory states that deviance is learned through interaction with others. This theory may help explain how and why people rationalize deviant behavior, especially in white-collar crimes committed by middle- and upper-class people.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Some individuals choose a life of deviance because of the satisfaction they derive from the act and deviant lifestyle.

a. True b. False

2. Which of the following statements best describes interactionist perspective(s) on deviance?

a. Deviance is relative to a given group of people or society. b. Deviance is relatively consistent across groups and society. c. What it means to be deviant is constructed through a process of indexicality and reflexivity. d. both a and c

3. According to labeling theory, a primary act of deviance does not always lead to a secondary act of deviance.

a. true b. false

4. According to Edwin Lemert, how is society involved in the deviance process?

a. during primary deviance, when society makes deviance symbolic in nature b. during secondary deviance, when society labels a person as deviant c. during the process of hiring police personnel to put away criminals d. during the process of committing the deviant act and accepting the deviant label

5. Which of the following is true of William Chambliss’ research on the Saints and the Roughnecks?

a. The Saints committed significantly less crime than the Roughnecks but were more likely to get caught. b. The Saints committed significantly less crime than the Roughnecks but only the Roughnecks got caught. c. The Saints committed somewhat higher levels of deviance as the Roughnecks but the Roughnecks were more likely to be caught than the Saints. d. The Roughnecks committed less crime and were rarely caught.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. How did Howard Becker’s research contribute to the understanding of deviance?

a. It showed the important role of deviant subcultures in the maintenance of deviant identities. b. It reinforced the relationship between primary and secondary deviance. c. He showed that even drug experiences can be influenced by social conditions. d. All of the above.

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Anomie: A sense of “normlessness” where there is little consensus about what is right and what is wrong.

Attachment: Component of social control theory referring to emotional bonds with other people in society.

Belief: Component of social control theory referring to people’s respect for law and order in society.

Covering: Keeping a known stigma from creating tensions in interaction by downplaying it.

Deviance: Any behavior that departs from accepted practices in a society or group.

Indexicality: The process by which individuals index thoughts, feelings and behaviors from their own perspective.

Labeling theory: Theory that argues deviance is a consequence of a social process in which a negative characteristic becomes an element of an individual’s identity.

Mores: Widely held values and beliefs in a society.

Reflexivity: The process by which individuals think about a behavior within its social context and give meaning to it.

Social control theory: Theory that deviance results when individuals’ bonds with conventional society are weakened in some way.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. a

2. d

3. a

4. b

5. c

6. d

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Eight Mental Health and Illness

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Determine what it means to be mentally healthy.

2. Interpret how the definition of mental illness is constructed.

3. List the structural conditions in society that contribute to distress.

4. Identify resources that can buffer stress.

5. Assess how mental health can influence our sense of identity and interactions with others.

• Read pages 221-246 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

This chapter examines mental health as an outcome of social life, influenced by social conditions and as a status characteristic that impacts our social interactions.

Once you read the sociological perspectives on mental health and illness, you may rethink what it means to have psychological problems.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Ambient hazards:

Chronic strains:

Colonization:

Intransigence:

Malaise:

Moderators:

Negative life events:

Sociology of mental health:

Total institutions:

Withdrawal:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The history of madness and civilization shows that the meaning and treatment of mental illness has changed dramatically over the centuries. In Europe, into the seventeenth century, mental illness was considered similar to other forms of deviance such as criminality.

Sociologists view many manifestations of mental illness to be the result of social conditions that tax individuals’ capacity to manage their lives. The stress process model helps us understand the relationship of negative life events and chronic strains to our mental health and well-being, focusing also on the resources we use to manage those stressors.

Social and economic characteristics are associated with different levels of distress, with social class status a critical factor in the stress process. Other important social characteristics that are implicated in the experience of stressors, the level of resources, and the expressions of distress include gender, age and race/ethnicity.

According to the group processes perspective, people set up different expectations for individuals’ performance depending on their status characteristics. Mental illness may be considered a diffuse status characteristic that influences members’ expectations of the mentally ill in a group setting, as well as the contributions made by those members.

Mental illness may be a form of stigma for individuals, an attribute that is deeply discrediting. Patients housed in mental institutions may try to cope in many different ways, including conversion, intransigence and forms of withdrawal and colonization.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Why was 1656 an important date in the history of mental illness according to Michel Foucault?

a. It is the year that psycho-tropic drugs started becoming widely available in Europe. b. It is the year that the “hospital general” opened, marking the beginning of the great confinement of mentally ill people. c. It is the first year in which psychoanalysis was used to treat mentally ill people. d. It was the first year that psychotropic drugs were introduced to the new world.

2. Which of the following forces are associated with putting aspects of social life, including mental illness, under the boundaries of medical professionals?

a. the power and authority of medical professionals b. activities of social movements and interest groups c. directed organization on professional activities d. All of the above are forces affecting medicalization.

3. Which social theorist argued that mental illness is a “myth?”

a. Peter Conrad b. Michel Foucault c. Thomas Szaz d. Herbert Blumer

4. Horwitz and Wakefield’s research focused on trends to increasingly diagnose individuals with clinical depression as the “loss of sadness” in society.

a. True b. False

5. What kind of stressors do college students typically report?

a. adjustment problems b. death of a loved one c. job loss d. fear of professors

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Which of the following is NOT a measurement of someone’s depression levels?

a. I did not feel like eating. b. I felt depressed. c. I felt everything was an effort. d. All of the above are measures of depression.

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Ambient hazards: Exposure to poor community conditions such as crime, poor living conditions and lack of services.

Chronic strains: Day-to-day role strains that may cause mental health problems over time by the accumulation of small amounts of stress.

Colonization: A way in which patients manage institutionalization by showing that their institution is a desirable place to live.

Intransigence: A way in which patients manage institutionalization by rebelling against the staff expectations.

Malaise: A psychological state of unhappiness associated with living conditions in rural or urban areas.

Moderators: Part of the stress process that includes the personal and social resources that affect the direction or strength of the relationship between a stressor and mental health.

Negative life events: Part of the stress process referring to any event deemed unwanted or stressful to an individual.

Sociology of mental health: The study of the social arrangements that affect mental illness and its consequences.

Total institutions: Places where individuals are isolated from the rest of society.

Withdrawal: A way of managing life in an institution involving the curtailing of interaction with others.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. b

2. d

3. c

4. a

5. a

6. d

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Objectives

Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Nine Attitudes, Values, and Behaviors

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Identify the nature of an attitude.

2. Evaluate how researchers study attitudes and behaviors.

3. Describe how people construct attitudes.

4. Analyze how attitudes toward other people form in group contexts.

• Read pages 247-276 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The goal of this chapter is to review the definition and measurement of attitudes and values and to examine research on how people use their time. Specific emphasis is given to prejudicial attitudes and behavior.

In this chapter, after discussing how attitudes are conceptualized, three areas of study within sociological social psychology will be emphasized. First, we will examine how attitudes are constructed from an interactionist perspective. Second, we will examine how attitudes vary by social location. Finally, we will apply the group processes perspective on attitudes, particularly related to attitudes toward other people in groups.

Key Terms

The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Altruism:

Attitude:

In-groups:

Opinion:

Prejudice:

Prosocial behavior:

Social distance:

Status construction theory:

Time deepening:

Values and beliefs:

Summary

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Attitudes incorporate emotional, cognitive and behavioral dimensions—how we feel, think and act toward an object. Attitudes are measured in terms of their direction and strength, though people can also have nonattitudes toward objects. Time-use studies measure behaviors and can be characterized as either productive time, such as work and family care, or free time, including activities such as watching television or socializing.

The relationship between attitudes and behavior, on average, is typically small with an average correlation of 0.38. The weak relationship between attitudes and behavior—and of attitudes with other attitudes—may reflect poor measurement of attitudes or the complexities of attitudes themselves. Interactionist perspectives view attitudes like any other aspect of social life: they are constructed based on our interactions with other people. Our group memberships can have a large influence in our attitudes toward people in other groups based on the relative standing of those groups.

Some attitudes and opinions have been found to vary based on social statuses. Men and women regularly report different attitudes toward some social issues, as do African Americans and whites. Many attitudes toward major social issues have changed over the last half century, indicating that newer cohorts have different values than earlier generations.

Status construction theory posits that individuals develop status value through face-to-face interaction as well as from larger societal prejudices. Social identity theory emphasizes the role of in-groups and out-groups in our attitude development.

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Your evaluation of a new political candidate may best be described as a(n) _____________ while your overall political ideology may better be described as a(n) _____________.

a. ideology; value b. value; attitude c. attitude; value d. both refer to attitudes

2. In a recent poll, Darnell told the interviewer that he does not care either way in the election. His response reflects what concept?

a. ideology b. values c. attitudes d. nonattitudes

3. Melissa had planned to play 18 holes of golf on the weekend but decided to cut it down to nine holes so that she could go to lunch with her boyfriend. What kind of behavior is she engaging in?

a. time deepening b. time management c. stress processing d. bureaucratic management

4. Americans have more productive time than free time.

a. true b. false

5. The relationship between our attitudes and behavior is typically ____________.

a. strong b. small c. 1 in average correlation d. 0 in average correlation

Self Test

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. Research generally shows that American attitudes on most major social issues have been pretty stable over the last 30 years.

a. true b. false

Answer Keys

Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Altruism: Refers to the motivation to help another person.

Attitude: A positive or negative evaluation of an object, a person, a group or an idea.

In-groups: Groups with whom we identify.

Opinion: The cognitive or “thinking” aspect of an attitude.

Prejudice: An attitude of dislike or active hostility toward a particular group in society.

Prosocial behavior: Includes any behavior that benefits another person.

Social distance: How close we feel to other people.

Status construction theory: Group processes theory that posits that individuals develop status value in face-to-face interactions with other people.

Time deepening: When people do more with the time that they have available to them.

Values and beliefs: Strongly held, relatively stable sets of attitudes.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

PSY 228 Social Psychology

1. c

2. d

3. a

4. a

5. b

6. b

Notes

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 3 Examination Instructions

The Unit Examination

The unit examination contains 25 multiple choice questions, as well as a writing assignment.

Your grade on the examination will be determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct B = 80% – 89% correct C = 70% – 79% correct D = 60% – 69% correct F = 59% and below correct

4 grade points 3 grade points 2 grade points 1 grade point 0 grade points

Completing Unit Three Examination

Additional detailed information on completing the examination, writing standards and how to submit your completed examination may be found in the syllabus for this course.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 3 Examination

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Most college students represent which type of person in Merton’s typology of deviance?

a. conformists b. innovators c. ritualists d. retreatists

2. A homeless person who decides to live in the woods is probably best represented by which of the following people using Merton’s typology of deviance?

a. conformists b. innovators c. ritualists d. retreatists

3. Which of the following represent strain according to new interpretations of strain theory?

a. negative relationships with family and friends b. poverty c. unemployment d. All of the above.

4. Which theory of deviance tries to explain why individuals do not commit crime?

a. labeling theory b. strain theory c. social control theory d. theory of differential association

5. Sampson and Laub’s research on delinquent and non-delinquent youths in Boston found delinquency was greater when bonds with which social institutions were weakest?

a. family b. education c. work d. both a and c

Unit 3 Examination

100

PSY 228 Social Psychology

6. In high school, Janet rarely got involved in smoking or drinking. In college, Janet found some friends who spent most of their off time consuming large amounts of alcohol and other drugs. Soon, she did the same and did not know anyone who did not spend their time that way. Which theory best explains Janet’s behavior given this limited amount of information?

a. labeling theory b. strain theory c. social control theory d. theory of differential association

7. Which of the following best exemplifies white collar crimes?

a. stealing a purse b. simple assault c. telling a lie to your friend d. embezzling from work

8. Murder would most likely be considered the breaking of a ________________ while picking your nose in public would be breaking a ________________.

a. more; folkway b. folkway; more c. norm; value d. both are mores

9. Scholars contend that ______________ and _______________ are two factors that affect the likelihood of committing a crime.

a. controls; formal sanctions b. certainty; severity c. certainty; informal sanctions d. severity; formal sanctions

10. Given the research on the epidemiology of mental health, which group is most likely to report problems with drinking? Depression?

a. married people; singles b. African-Americans; Latinos c. African-Americans; Whites d. men; women

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11. The stresses associated with living in urban areas come from _____________ while the stresses associated with rural areas tend to be a result of _____________.

a. lack of stimulation; ambient hazards b. ambient hazards; lack of stimulation c. urban malaise; rural malaise d. negative life events; chronic stresses

12. How do group processes scholars examine the concept of mental illness?

a. It is viewed as a status characteristic like race or gender. b. It is viewed as a normal part of group interactions. c. It is viewed as a major area of group research. d. It is viewed as a way for individuals in groups to negotiate identity.

13. Which of the following would be considered a total institution?

a. your college b. a police station c. a prison d. a family household

14. Which sociologist is most associated with the concept of stigma?

a. Erving Goffman b. Georg Simmel c. George Herbert Mead d. Herbert Blumer

15. Goffman’s research on total institutions showed that many patients in insane asylums generally ____________ their roles as patients.

a. resist b. accept c. use colonization to cope with d. None of the above.

16. Which of the following coping strategies emphasize patients’ attempts to rebel against asylum staff?

a. conversion b. intransigence c. withdrawal d. colonization

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17. The loss of a job is represented in which component of the stress process?

a. stressors b. outcomes c. mediators and moderators d. social and economic characteristics

18. LaPiere’s study of prejudice clearly showed that most people _____________.

a. have some prejudice b. act on their prejudices c. do not act on their prejudices d. both a and c

19. Overall, American political attitudes lean on being ______________.

a. very conservative b. moderately conservative c. moderately liberal d. very liberal

20. Which of the following groups could be identified as most liberal in the U.S.?

a. females living in the Midwest b. females living on the West Coast c. males living in the Midwest d. males living on the West Coast

21. Which of the following groups spend the most time on childcare? Which group has shown an increase in time spent with childcare?

a. women for both questions b. men for both questions c. men; women d. women; men

22. Which of the following social theorists is most associated with studying racial prejudice in the United States?

a. George Herbert Mead b. W.E.B. Du Bois c. Talcott Parsons d. William Thomas

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23. Based on status construction theory, what would be the best way to get what you want out of a group and leave a positive impression?

a. Act like a very nice person. b. Act like a generous person. c. Act like a majority member of society. d. Act like a high-status person.

24. Willer’s research showing presidential approval ratings increasing after the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the U.S. clearly showed ____________.

a. in-group bias tendencies b. out-group bias tendencies c. prejudicial biases d. ideological alliances

25. The slow treatment of Hurricane Katrina victims was used as an example of ____________ in your text.

a. government inefficiency b. conscious racism c. unconscious racism d. None of the above.

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Writing Assignment for Unit Three

• Responses must be submitted as a MS Word Document only, typed double-spaced, using a standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type size.

Undergraduate courses: 350 – 500 words or 1 – 2 pages. Graduate courses: 500 – 750 words or 2 – 3 pages. Doctoral courses: 750 – 1000 words or 4 – 5 pages.

Plagiarism

Please answer ONE of the following:

• Include your name, student number, course number, course title and unit number on each page of your writing assignment (this is for your protection in case your materials become separated).

• Begin each writing assignment by identifying the question number you are answering followed by the actual question itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions (i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

1. How do symbolic interactionists examine the social construction of mental health? Specifically, review Foucault’s historical analysis of mental illness in western cultures and the medicalization of deviance.

2. Discuss how community conditions can impact individuals’ mental health. Be specific about the role of stressors and resources available under different community conditions (e.g., urban vs. rural; poor vs. middle class).

3. Review the different dimensions of attitudes. How does the complexity in attitudes help to explain the relatively weak relationship between a person’s attitudes and their behaviors?

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Unit 3 is done! You’re close to the finish line and we’re cheering you on to victory!

Objectives

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Instructions to Students

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Chapter Ten The Sociology of Sentiment and Emotion

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Distinguish the components of emotions.

2. Determine how people learn emotions.

3. Consider how identity relates to emotions.

4. Evaluate how our statuses in society affect our uses of emotions.

5. Interpret the norms that govern the use of emotions in different social settings.

6. Predict how group settings affect emotions.

• Read pages 277-306 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

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This chapter reviews the many dimensions of sentiment and emotions. It also examines the role of emotions in the development and maintenance of society, as well as the impact of society and culture on the development and expression of emotions.

This chapter will start by reviewing how sociologists study the upward movement of emotions in the creation of society and the social construction of emotions more generally. It will also review the structured nature of emotions and how society shapes the scope and expression of emotions.

Key Terms

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The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Affect:

Cybernetic approach:

Distributive justice:

Edgework:

Emotional cues:

Emotional intelligence:

Emotional scripts:

Emotions:

Interaction ritual:

Mood:

Potency:

Procedure justice:

Sentiment:

Transient sentiments:

Summary

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Sociological perspectives on emotion emphasize the cybernetic approach to the study of emotions: emotions radiate upward from individual-level interactions to maintain social structures as well as downward when social structure helps to shape our emotions.

Symbolic interactionists believe we learn emotions like we learn about other aspects of social life: through interaction with other people. The sociocentric model of emotional socialization argues that the primary means of learning about emotions comes from social instruction, whereas affect control theory argues that people use emotions as signals as to how well they are performing their role in a given situation.

People use emotional scripts and cues to help use and manage emotions in day-to-day life. The theory of interaction ritual chains emphasizes the role of emotions in maintaining macrosociological social institutions.

The power-status approach to emotions says that emotions result from real, anticipated, imagined or recollected outcomes of social interactions. The gain or loss of power and status are primary ways in which our position affects our emotional life.

The norms that govern our emotional lives are called feeling rules. We may receive “rule reminders” from friends and family when we do not “feel” appropriately. Emotion work refers to the generation of prescribed emotion to meet the demands of a job. The commodification of emotions is associated with the concept of “McDonaldization.”

The socioemotional economy is a system for regulating emotional resources among people that links individuals into larger networks of people. Sympathy is an important example of this economy. Emotion culture refers to a society’s expectation about how to experience different emotions. According to the group processes perspective, there are at least two ways in which exchange processes may affect your emotions: the concern over getting what is fair out of the group and the way in which distributions are made in a group. Emotions can also affect status relationships in group exchanges such that higher-status people are freer to express certain emotions than lower status people.

Self Test

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Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. Based on Thoit’s treatment of emotions, which of the following is NOT a dimension of emotion?

a. situational cues b. physiological changes c. an arousal d. an emotion label

2. The moment that society gives meaning to an emotion it becomes a _____________.

a. sentiment b. feeling c. mood d. affect

3. Clem has been feeling sad all day long. What term best describes his emotional state?

a. sentiment b. feeling c. mood d. affect

4. Which of the following would be considered a primary emotion?

a. anger b. fear c. depression d. All of the above are primary emotions.

5. Non-verbal behaviors play a lesser role than verbal communication does.

a. True b. False

6. The meanings of emotions are stable over a life course.

a. True b. False

Self Test

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Answer Keys

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Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Affect: An evaluative component of an emotion.

Cybernetic approach: The study of emotion that assumes that social conditions shape our emotions; and in turn, our emotions act to maintain social structures.

Distributive justice: In exchange theory, it is the belief about the fairness of what people get.

Edgework: Thrill-seeking behaviors designed to produce intense emotions.

Emotional cues: Information about when and what emotions are appropriate in a given social setting.

Emotional intelligence: Our ability to control and employ emotions in our social environments.

Emotional scripts: Expectations about when and how to act excited, angry, sad and so on.

Emotions: Feelings that incorporate situational cures, physiological changes, expressive gestures and an emotion label.

Interaction ritual: The exchange of symbols and emotion between individuals essential to maintaining society.

Mood: A diffuse emotional state that lasts a relatively long period of time.

Potency: Element of affect control theory referring to how a person’s sentiment toward an object is powerful or powerless.

Procedure justice: In exchange theory, it is the beliefs about the fairness of the methods used to make distributions.

Sentiment: A feeling that has been given meaning by society.

Transient sentiments: Sentiments unique to specific interactions.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

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1. c

2. a

3. c

4. d

5. b

6. b

Notes

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Objectives

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Instructions to Students

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Chapter Eleven Collective Behavior

Learning Objectives

Upon successful completion of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Analyze how crowds contribute to the development of mass hysteria.

2. Identify theories that explain individuals’ behavior in large groups.

3. Decide whether structural conditions affect crowd behaviors.

4. Chart the phases of collective behavior found in large social movements.

5. Evaluate how group and individual motivations interact in social movements.

• Read pages 307-336 of your textbook

• Reference: Social Psychology: Sociological Perspectives by Rohall, Milkie and Lucas, 2nd edition, 2011

Overview

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The goal of this chapter is to review theories of collective behavior and the current research on behaviors that occur during collective events.

This chapter will review theories and research related to the concepts of collective behavior, collective action and social movements.

Key Terms

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The key terms listed below are terms with which you should be familiar. Write your definition below each item. Check your answers at the end of this chapter.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Acting crowds:

Collective identity:

Craze:

Expressive crowd:

Hostile outbursts:

Mass:

Milling:

Routine dispersal:

Social dilemma:

Structural strain:

Summary

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Traditional theories of collective behavior, collective action and social movements emphasize the ways in which crowds transform the individuals acting in them, turning them into irrational beings. Rational choice perspectives on collective action emphasize the idea that people in groups are purposive in their decisions and actions in everyday life, including group events.

Research on protests in the United States over the last decades has shown that most protests and marches are small in nature. Very few marches go over 100,000 participants and very few involve civil disobedience. However, only the largest protests receive much media attention.

Sociological social psychologists also study how we develop collective memories, examining the conditions that produce spontaneous thoughts or feelings at the same time; how conditions coalesce to bring us to believe something is true; what an event means to a people; and, finally, how we categorize those memories with other historical events.

Research evidence in the group processes tradition indicates that people will be likely to form coalitions when they are faced with large power disparities. The free-rider problem and social dilemmas are typical problems found in behavior within and between groups.

Self Test

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Multiple Choice Questions (Circle the correct answer)

1. The March for Life protest against abortion is probably best described as a ______________.

a. social action b. collective action c. social movement d. collective movement

2. Gustave LeBon’s book, The Crowd, is based on observations of which of the following events?

a. the Russian Revolution b. The French Revolution c. WWII d. the Chinese Revolution

3. Which theorist is most associated with mass hysteria theory?

a. Carl Couch b. Herbert Blumer c. Neil Smelser d. Gustave LeBon

4. According to Blumer’s theory of circular reaction, when do individuals in crowds start to lose control and act without much rationality?

a. during the milling phase when individuals are encouraged to act out against authorities b. during the interpretation phase when individuals are encouraged to act out against authorities c. during the interpretation phase when individuals lose their ability to communicate about appropriate behavior d. during the milling phase when individuals lose their ability to communicate about appropriate behavior

5. Research on crowd and protest behaviors has generally supported LeBon and other scholars from the mass hysteria tradition.

a. true b. false

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6. Guilford went to a protest against the school’s smoking policy because he truly believed that it was wrong and should be changed. He had been a leader in the anti-smoking group for a number of years prior to the march. According to Turner and Killian, which kind of participant is he?

a. ego-involved participant b. concerned participant c. insecure participant d. curiosity seeker

Answer Keys Social Psychology Essay homework help

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Key Term Definitions

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Acting crowds: Groups of people with a focus,or goal who act with unity to achieve the goal.

Collective identity: An individual’s sense of connection with a larger community or group.

Craze: When large numbers of people become obsessed with something like the purchase of a product or an activity.

Expressive crowd: Crowd that lacks a goal and is primarily a setting for emotional release, which often occurs through rhythmical actions such as applause, dancing or singing.

Hostile outbursts: Any type of mass violence or killings.

Mass: Anonymous individuals from many social strata that are loosely organized.

Milling: Part of the circular reaction process in which individuals at an event anxiously move about in a seemingly aimless and random fashion.

Routine dispersal: A dispersal in which participants leave a gathering in a rational, orderly fashion.

Social dilemma: A situation whereby if every person acts in his or her own best interests, the results will be bad for the group.

Structural strain: Element of value-added theory stating there must be some level of conflict over some issue or problem to initiate collective action.

Answers to Self Test

Answer Keys

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1. c

2. b

3. d

4. c

5. b

6. a

Notes

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Unit 4 Examination Instructions

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The Unit Examination

The unit examination contains 25 multiple choice questions, as well as a writing assignment.

Your grade on the examination will be determined by the percentage of correct answers. The university utilizes the following grading system:

A = 90% – 100% correct B = 80% – 89% correct C = 70% – 79% correct D = 60% – 69% correct F = 59% and below correct

4 grade points 3 grade points 2 grade points 1 grade point 0 grade points

Completing Unit Four Examination

Additional detailed information on completing the examination, writing standards and how to submit your completed examination may be found in the syllabus for this course.

PSY 228 Social Psychology

Unit 4 Examination

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Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. Which of the following jobs is most likely to have an extensive set of feeling rules?

a. a stay-at-home mother b. a cashier at McDonalds c. a plumber d. a farmer

2. Zurcher’s concept of emotional scripts most closely resembles what other concept reviewed in this chapter?

a. emotion rules b. emotional energy c. feeling rules d. sentiment

3. Milan was a little perturbed when his boss refused to accept some flowers he had brought as a sign of his sadness over the loss of her sister. Which sympathy rule did his boss break?

a. Do not make false claims of sympathy. b. Do not claim too much sympathy. c. Claim some sympathy. d. Reciprocate to other for their gift of sympathy.

4. Based on Lofland’s analysis of the role of culture in the expression of grief in society, which of the following places would have the hardest time coping with the loss of a child?

a. modern day Asia b. modern day Europe c. modern day Ethiopia d. modern day America

5. Swidler’s research on love in American culture revealed what?

a. Americans find it hard to fall in love. b. Americans initiate relationships based on a mythical view of emotional bonding between lovers. c. Americans use a more realistic view of love to sustain relationships on a day-to-day basis. d. both b and c

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6. According to exchange theory and research, which of the following situations is most likely to produce a positive emotion?

a. an exchange in which people get the amount equal to their position in the group b. an exchange in which you get as much as you gave c. an exchange in which you get less than you gave d. All of these exchanges will produce a positive emotion.

7. According to the exchange theory, what sentiment is EXPECTED when you get more out of an exchange than you give?

a. sadness b. guilt c. happiness d. joy

8. According to research and theory of group processes, how does power in relationships affect our emotions?

a. Relationships characterized as having equal power engender positive emotion. b. Power makes us feel guilty in social exchanges. c. Relationships characterized as having unequal power engender positive emotion. d. Power gives us a positive feeling only when we deserve it during social exchanges.

9. Secondary emotions are ________________.

a. learned through socialization b. similar to sentiments c. social emotions d. All the above.

10. Your feeling that a district attorney has a lot of power refer to which dimension of affect control theory?

a. evaluation b. potency c. activity d. strength

11. What emotion did wheelchair users employ when managing interactions with “stand-up” people in Cahill and Eggleston’s study of people with a handicap?

a. fear b. humor c. love d. anger

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12. Your friend, Chloe, goes through a bad break-up and her cat runs away all in the same week. When you and Chloe are out to dinner one night you run into Sarah, a good friend of yours from school. Chloe expresses the tragedies that have befallen her the past week to Sarah who proceeds to listen and then changes the conversation. Once back to your dinner, Chloe expresses her dismay and hurt that Sarah did not seem concerned about her break-up or loss of her cat. Sarah is upset because her ______________ were not met.

a. social scripts b. emotional scripts c. sentiments d. emotions

13. According to Randall Collins’ theory of interaction ritual chains, what role does emotion play in the maintenance of society?

a. Emotional energies provide the reason for maintaining interactions in society. b. Emotional scripts provide information about how to behave in society. c. Emotions give us cues as to whether we are performing our roles in society adequately. d. Emotions exist within a series of “feeling rules” about how to behave in society.

14. Which of the following jobs does NOT demand high levels of emotion work.

a. waitress b. teacher c. customer service agent d. None of the above.

15. Steve turned to the people around him for help in deciding how to act at a local protest. According to perception control theory, what form of perception control is he using?

a. independent instruction b. interdependent instruction c. organizational instruction d. interactional instruction

16. What is the best predictor of an individual participating in a march or a riot?

a. her structural position b. her concern over a social condition in society c. her being asked to go to the event d. her access to resources

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17. The vast majority of protests and other collective events have which kind of dispersal?

a. routine dispersal b. emergency dispersal c. coerced dispersal d. active dispersal

18. Which of the following are typical behaviors at a large protest march?

a. People break off into a series of smaller groups. b. People form lines to access various facilities. c. People develop arcs and circles around speakers. d. All of the above are typical behaviors.

19. ____________ is thrill-seeking behaviors designed to produce intense emotions.

a. Potency b. Edgework c. Cyberneticism d. None of the above.

20. Enduring emotional meanings in a given society is known as _____________.

a. fundamental sentiments b. transient sentiments c. emotional cues d. emotion work

21. The debate as to whether or not you should stop and look at an accident while driving by, possibly slowing down the traffic behind you, is an example of a ______________.

a. social dilemma b. free rider problem c. group conformity d. mass hysteria

22. Public radio—radio stations that rely, in part, on listener support to stay in business—run the risk of what problem?

a. a social dilemma b. the free rider problem c. group conformity d. mass hysteria

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23. The use of _______________ is important to the forming of collective memories.

a. storytelling b. collective behavior c. collective emotion d. framing

24. According to emergent norm theory, the _______________ is the type of person who participates in the group out of curiosity.

a. ego-involved participant b. curiosity seeker c. concerned participant d. insecure participant

25. Phase of collective behavior referring to the factors that bring people together into the same place at the same time.

a. gathering phase b. homogeneity of mood c. assembling phase d. interpretive phase

Unit 4 Examination

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Writing Assignment for Unit Four

• Responses must be submitted as a MS Word Document only, typed double-spaced, using a standard font (i.e. Times New Roman) and 12 point type size.

Undergraduate courses: 350 – 500 words or 1 – 2 pages. Graduate courses: 500 – 750 words or 2 – 3 pages. Doctoral courses: 750 – 1000 words or 4 – 5 pages.

Plagiarism

Please answer ONE of the following:

• Include your name, student number, course number, course title and unit number on each page of your writing assignment (this is for your protection in case your materials become separated).

• Begin each writing assignment by identifying the question number you are answering followed by the actual question itself (in bold type).

• Use a standard essay format for responses to all questions (i.e., an introduction, middle paragraphs and conclusion).

1. Review the theory of interaction ritual chains. How do our emotions contribute to the maintenance of society according to this theory?

2. Review the role of emotions in exchange processes. What conditions are most likely to produce positive emotions? Negative emotions? What role does power and status play in the development of emotions in exchange relationships?

3. Apply group processes theory and research related to coalitions to explain the development of social movements more broadly. First, define the concept of coalition. Second, describe how coalitions work and the conditions that make them successful. Third, apply this information to explain how and why people initiate social movements in society.

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Congratulations! You have completed Unit 4.

Now let’s sharpen our pencils for the Final Exam.

We are confident you will do well.

Final Examination Instructions

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About the Final Examination

After you have successfully completed all of the unit examinations and writing assignments, it will be time for you to take the final examination.

The final examination will be provided by student services only after you have completed all four unit examinations and submitted all four writing assignments.

Scheduling a Final Examination

Final examination requests can be submitted via U.S. mail, online through the Coast Connection student portal, or by calling the Testing Department at (714) 547-9625.

A final exam scheduling form is located on the last page of this study guide. Please fill out ALL required fields and mail it to the university.

Final exams will only be sent if you have completed all four unit examinations and submitted all four writing assignments.

Submitting Your Final Examination

Final Examinations can be submitted by mail, fax or online through the Coast Connection student portal.

After you have completed your exam, you or your proctor can fax it to the Grading Department at (714) 547-1451 or mail it to the university. When faxing exams, please do not resize your fax.

Final Exam Scheduling Form

PSY 228 Social Psychology

The university requires all final examinations to be completed under the supervision of a proctor. Please provide information on your designated proctor. ALL information must be filled in; otherwise, your request will not be processed.

Date _____________________________ Student I.D. ______________________________________________

Student Name ________________________________________________________________________________

Address ______________________________________________________________________________________

City __________________________________________________ State _________________________________

Zip Code ________________ Country ____________________________________________________________

E-Mail Address _______________________________________________________________________________

Daytime Telephone _____________________________ Evening Telephone _____________________________

Course Information:

Course Number ___________ Course Title _______________________________________________________

Please send the Final Examination to:

Proctor’s Name _______________________________________________________________________________

Proctor’s Relationship to Student ________________________________________________________________

Street Address _______________________________________________________________________

City ______________________________ State _________________ Zip Code __________________________

Country __________________________________ Email Address ___________________________

Daytime Telephone _________________________ Evening Telephone _________________________________

Student’s Signature ________________________________________________________________________

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The Aging Process homework help

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

The Aging Process homework help

DISCUSSION 1:

The Aging Process

As individuals grow older, they experience biological changes, but how they experience these changes varies considerably. Senescence, or the process of aging, “affects different people, and various parts of the body, at different rates” (Zastrow & Kirst-Ashman, 2016, p. 658).

What factors affect the aging process? Why do some individuals appear to age faster than others? In this Discussion you address these questions and consider how, you, as a social worker, might apply your understanding of the aging process to your work with older clients.

To prepare for this Discussion, read “Working With the Aging: The Case of Francine” in Social Work Case Studies: Foundation Year.

Post a Discussion in which you:

o Apply your understanding of the aging process to Francine’s case. How might Francine’s environment have influenced her aging process? How might you, as Francine’s social worker, apply your knowledge of the aging process to her case?

o Identify an additional strategy you might use to apply your knowledge of the aging process to social work practice with older clients in general. Explain why you would use the strategy.

Be sure to support your posts with specific references to the resources. If you are using additional articles, be sure to provide full APA-formatted citations for your references

References

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. M. (Eds.). (2014). Social work case studies: Foundation year. Baltimore, MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

Zastrow, C. H., & Kirst-Ashman, K. K. (2016). Understanding human behavior and the social environment (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Cengage Learning.

Working With the Aging: The Case of Francine

Francine is a 70-year-old, Irish Catholic female. She worked for 40 years as a librarian in an institution of higher education and retired at age 65. Francine has lived alone for the past year, after her partner, Joan, died of cancer. Joan and Francine had been together for 30 years, and while Francine personally identifies as a lesbian, she never came out to her family or to her colleagues. When speaking to all but her closest confidantes, Francine referred to Joan as her “best friend” or her “roommate.” Francine’s bereavement was therefore complicated because she did not feel she could discuss the true nature of her partnership with Joan. She felt that there was little recognition from her family, and even some of her close associates, of the impact and meaning of Joan’s death to Francine. There is a history of alcohol abuse in Francine’s family, and Francine abused alcohol from late adolescence into her mid-30s. However, Francine has been in recovery for several decades. Francine has no known sexual abuse history and no criminal history.

Francine sought counseling with me for several reasons, including an ongoing depressed mood, a lack of pleasure or enjoyment in her life, and loneliness and isolation since Joan’s death. She also reported that she had begun to drink again and that while her drinking was not yet at the level it had been earlier in her life, she was concerned that she could return to a dependence upon alcohol. Francine came to counseling with several considerable strengths, including a capacity to form intimate relationships, a successful work history, a history of having maintained her sobriety in the past for many years, as well as insight into the factors that had contributed to her current difficulties.

During our initial meetings, Francine stated that her goals were to feel less depressed, to reduce or stop drinking, and to feel less isolated. In order to ensure that no medical issues were contributing to her depression symptoms, I referred Francine to her primary care physician for an evaluation. Francine’s physician did not find any medical cause of her symptoms, diagnosing Francine with moderate clinical depression and recommending that Francine begin a course of antidepressant medication. Francine was reluctant to take medication and first wanted to try a course of counseling.

In order to help Francine meet her goal of reducing her depression symptoms, I employed a technique called behavioral activation (BA), which is drawn from principles of cognitive behavioral therapy and helps to reengage people in pleasant physical, social, and recreational activities. We began with a small initial goal of having Francine dedicate at least 5 minutes of each day to an activity she found pleasant or rewarding. Over the following weeks, we increased the time. Francine’s treatment progress was monitored through weekly completion of the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) in order to determine whether or not her depressive symptoms were improving.

I helped Francine address her drinking by reconnecting her with effective coping strategies she had used in the past to achieve and maintain her sobriety. These included identifying triggers for the urge to drink and exploring her motivations for both continuing to drink and for stopping her use of alcohol. Francine began attending regular meetings of Alcoholics Anonymous^™ (AA) and found several meetings that were specifically for older women and for lesbians. In addition, Francine spoke regularly with a sponsor who helped her to remain abstinent during particularly stressful moments during her reengagement in sobriety.

Finally, in order to address Francine’s goal of feeling less lonely and isolated, we explored potential avenues to increase her social networks. In addition to spending time with her family, friends, and her AA sponsor, Francine began to visit the local lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT), center for the first time in her life and attended a support group for women who had lost their partners. Francine also began spending time at her local senior center and went there at least three times a week for exercise classes, other recreational activities, and lunch. She also began to do volunteer work at her local library once a week.

Over several months of counseling, Francine stopped drinking; significantly increased her daily involvement in pleasant and rewarding activities, including social and recreational activities; and reported feeling less lonely, despite still missing her partner a great deal. Francine’s scores on the PHQ-9 gradually decreased over time, and after 16 weeks of counseling, Francine reported that she no longer felt she needed the session to move on with her life. In addition, Francine visited her primary care physician, who found upon evaluation that her depression had lifted considerably and that an antidepressant was no longer indicated. By the end of counseling, Francine’s focused work on identifying her depression symptoms and her triggers for drinking equipped her to better recognize when she might need support in the future and to whom she could reach out for help if she needed it.

Discussion 2: Mental Health Care

Mental health care is a primary concern to social workers, who are the main providers of care to populations with mental health diagnoses. The system that provides services to individuals with mental health issues is often criticized for being reactive and only responding when individuals are in crisis. Crisis response is not designed to provide on-going care and is frequently very expensive, especially if hospitalization is involved.

Critics suggest a comprehensive plan, which involves preventive services, as well as a continuum of care. However, there are few, if any, effective and efficient program models. Social work expertise and input are vital to implementing effective services. Targeting services to individuals with a diagnosis of mental illness is one strategy. Another approach includes providing an array of services that are also preventative in nature. How might these suggestions address potential policy gaps in caring for individuals such as the family members in the Parker Family case?

For this Discussion, review this week’s resources, including the Parker Family video. Then consider the specific challenges or gaps in caring for individuals with a chronic mental illness might present for the mental health system based on the Parker case. Finally, think about how environmental stressors, such as poverty, can aggravate mental illness and make treatment more challenging.

· Post an explanation of the specific challenges or gaps in the mental health care system for the care of individuals with chronic mental illnesses.

· Base your response on the Parker case.

· Then, describe how environmental stressors, such as poverty, can aggravate mental illness and make treatment more challenging.

Support your post with specific references to the resources. Be sure to provide full APA citations for your references.

References

Popple, P. R., & Leighninger, L. (2015). The policy-based profession: An introduction to social welfare policy analysis for social workers. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

World Health Organization. (2004). Mental health policy and service guidance package: Mental health policy, plans and programmes. Retrieved from http://www.who.int/mental_health/policy/en/policy_plans_revision.pdf

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. (Eds.). (2014). Sessions: Case histories. Baltimore: MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

Parker Family Episode 5 Program Transcript

COUNSELOR: So you’ve been hospitalized, let’s see, four times altogether.

FEMALE CLIENT: Well actually, I should have only been in the hospital three times.

COUNSELOR: Why do you say that?

FEMALE SPEAKER: Well, on the third hospital visit they kicked me out before I was ready to leave. They said I was just in there to get away from my mom, but I told them they were wrong. My sister even backed me up on this. But they didn’t care. They just checked me out, and home sweet home I went. I was barely gone like a month and I was back in their monkey house. So technically, for me, hospital visits three and four are the same. I remember going back to that hospital seeing the same docs and nurses, and I just smiled and waved and said, see, I told you so. I mean, we picked up right where we left off.

COUNSELOR: What do you mean your sister backed you up?

FEMALE CLIENT: Jane, that’s my sister. Jane, she knew how crazy my mom is, so she took pictures of all that mess and all that junk my mom hoards, and she showed them to the social worker in the hospital.

COUNSELOR: What happened?

FEMALE CLIENT: You know what the social worker said? She said that there was nothing that she can do about it, that her job was to only make sure that patients have a place to go when they leave the hospital. Translation, when you’re out the door, good riddance and good luck. Some policy, huh?

Discussion 3: Emerging Issues in Mental Health Care

Like so many areas of practice in social work, mental health is dynamic and ever-evolving. Research continues to provide new information about how the brain functions, the role of genetics in mental health, and evidence to support new possibilities for treatment. Keeping up with these developments might seem impossible. However, being aware of and responsive to these developments and incorporating them into both your practice and social policy is essential to changing the lives of individuals and families who live with a mental health diagnosis and the impact it brings to their daily lives.

For this Discussion, review this week’s resources. Search the Library and other reputable online sources for emerging issues in the mental health care arena. Think about the issues that are being addressed by social policy and those that are in need of policy advocacy and why that might be the case. Then, consider what social workers can do to ensure that clients/populations receive necessary mental health services. Also, think about the ethical responsibility related to mental health care social workers must uphold in host settings when they encounter conflicts in administration and home values. Finally, search your state government sites for the mental health commitment standards in your state and reflect on the mental health services covered under your state’s Medicaid program.

· Post an explanation of those emerging issues in the mental health care arena that the policymakers address and those that are in need of policy advocacy and why.

· Then, explain what strategies social workers might use to ensure that clients/populations receive necessary mental health services.

· Finally, explain the mental health commitment standards and mental health services in your state. In your explanation, refer to the services covered under your state’s Medicaid program.

Support your post with specific references to the resources. Be sure to provide full APA citations for your references.

References

Popple, P. R., & Leighninger, L. (2015). The policy-based profession: An introduction to social welfare policy analysis for social workers. (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education.

Plummer, S. -B., Makris, S., & Brocksen, S. (Eds.). (2014). Sessions: Case histories. Baltimore: MD: Laureate International Universities Publishing. [Vital Source e-reader].

Mental Health America. (n.d.). Retrieved October 10, 2013, from www.mentalhealthamerica.net

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Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.

February 6, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.

Details:

This is a Collaborative Learning Community (CLC) assignment.

Before beginning this assignment, each group should submit a filled-in copy of the CLC Agreement Form.

Each CLC team will design a correlational study, groups will need two variables with at least five sets of data. between these two variables: time spent playing video games and aggression.

Then in 500-750 words, do the following:

Create a hypothesis for the group’s study. Consider the hypothesis and how the group will define operationally and measure the variables.
Describe how the group will obtain a random sample of participants.
Assume the study produces a correlation of .56 between the variables. Analyze three possible causal reasons for the relationship.
Submit an SPSS output for the correlational study.

Use two to four scholarly resources to support your explanations.

Prepare this assignment according to the guidelines found in the APA Style Guide, located in the Student Success Center. An abstract is not required.

This assignment uses a rubric. Please review the rubric prior to beginning the assignment to become familiar with the expectations for successful completion.

You are required to submit this assignment to Turnitin. Please refer to the directions in the Student Success Center.

CLC Agreement Form

CLC Course Information

Course Name/Section Number:
Instructor’s Name:
Start Date of the Course:

CLC Member Contact Information

(Group members predicated/adjusted upon instructor discretion.)

CLC Member Name	Primary E-mail Address	Secondary E-mail Address	Other Contact Information

CLC Group Norms/Values

(Steps to ensure team success.)

Each team member agrees to do the following:	Why this is important to the team?
Check into the CLC regularly to review progress on the assignment.
Contribute ideas and feedback to the group from initial discussions throughout assignment completion.
Communicate with all CLC members as soon as a problem or issue arises.
Maintain respectful communications with all team members.
Complete assigned tasks by the deadlines set by the CLC members.
Take a leadership role in CLC assignments.
Cite and reference all sources of information used in completing tasks.
Other:
Other:

Assignment Management Specifics

(What needs to be undertaken to complete the CLC assignment?)

CLC Group Member’s Name:	Task to be completed by this team member:	Due date for completing the task for the CLC to review:
	Contributes one or more ideas for implementing and completing assignment.
	Outlines the CLC assignment.
	Assigns tasks to CLC members.
	Performs research on assigned topics and writes it up for CLC members to review.
	Ensures members meet assigned deadlines for tasks.
	Proofreads and edits assignment.
	Submits assignment(s) by the due date.
	Other:
	Other:

CLC Group Interaction Guidelines

(How can we anticipate and mediate group conflict if/when it arises?)

What may impede teamwork?	Group (Re) mediation Process
A CLC member does not provide assignment ideas or feedback to team members.
A CLC member does not complete any components of his/her task.
A CLC member completes his or her task, but turns it in after the agreed-upon due date.
Other:
Other:

CLC Group Review Process

(What makes a CLC effective?)

What did our CLC do well this time?	What can we do to be a more effective CLC next time?

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Brown, M. (2013). Developing social problems into research problems for graduate study [Online webcast]. Retrieved from Evaluating Use of Literature and Problem Statement

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