Psych 635 Ethics In Condiditoning Research

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Psych 635 Ethics In Condiditoning Research

Running Head: ETHICS IN CONDITIONING RESEARCH 1

ETHICS IN CONDITIONING RESEARCH 6

Ethics In Conditioning Research

Amber Grey, Mary Oliver, Vanessa Rodriguez, & Debra Saunders

PSYCH / 635

Ms. Chelsea Hansen

February 2, 2015

Ethics in Conditioning Research

Research and experimentation has changed tremendously over the decades. Earlier research and experiments had little to no regard for human safety or ethics. The American Psychological Association (APA) created ethical guidelines that now govern all professionals in the psychology field. Ivan Pavlov is known for his work in classical conditioning is most famous for his work salivating dogs. However, Pavlov also performed the same experiments with children using some of the same methods. In one of Pavlov’s experiment shown from Film Media Group (2010), Pavlov attached an instrument to the child’s arm and a tube above his mouth that dispense cookies when a lever was pressed. When the level was pressed causing pressure to the child’s arm, a cookie was released out of the tube directly into the child’s mouth. Over time whenever the lever was pressed the child would automatically start chewing whether there was a cookie present or not. This research proposal is designed to recreate the experiment that Pavlov did with children that were unethical by today’s standards.

Problem

The American Psychological Association (APA) has created and place ethical guidelines that are for all professionals in the psychology field to follow that not only protect the professionals but also the individuals who participate in the experiments. Pavlov’s Experiment with the children has shown some ethical violations that violated the children’s rights according to the APA guidelines in place today. One of the Ethical Violations in Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment was the Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence (APA, 2015). This ethical principle states that the psychologist seeks to have safeguards for the welfare, rights and safety of those who interact professionally and those who are participating in the experiment including animals. Pavlov’s research experiment did not take the children’s safety, well-being and rights as a human being into consideration on how these children would be affected by the experiment. Pavlov had little regards to the human safety which was why Pavlov’s experiment violated the ethical guideline.

Recommendation

The way in which Ivan Pavlov performed his experiments on children in today’s ethical standards would be considered harsh, cruel, and inhumane. Children and dogs were treated unfairly and often times unnecessary surgical procedures were performed in the experiments. Ethically the experiments would not be permitted in society today because of the APA standards and guidelines that must be followed. Ethically by today’s standards of appropriateness Pavlov’s experiments on children can be recreated. The experiments would need to be modified to protect the physical welfare and psychological well-being of the participants. Pavlov believed that unlike animals, humans could learn conditioned responses more rapidly (Schunk, 2012).

The first recommendation to help with the experiment for Pavlov’s experiment with children would be to give the child a pat on the arm for a reflex, if the child response he or she would receive a treat. This would take the place of pressure to the arm, which may cause harm to the child. The second recommendation is for the researcher to have the child choose a good choice or bad choice behavior; if the child chooses the good choice he or she receives a treat, if the child chooses the bad choice behavior he or she does not receive the treat. This experiment does not reflect harm to the child in any way, but does teach the child the difference between good and bad choices. When the experiment is repeated the child learns to make good choices for the reward. The third recommendation is verbal praise and verbal prompts. Using the two together children can have a positive response to the request of the researcher. When the researcher gives the verbal prompt and the child response appropriately, the researcher responds with verbal praise. Instead of using food for rewards the researcher can use verbal praise to help the child with positive reinforcements. The action should be repeated to help the child remember what he or she is supposed to do and when. It is unclear if Pavlov received informed consent to do invasive procedures to children in his experiments. When conducting research on child under the age of 18, it is important to obtain verbal or written consent from a parent or legal guardian before carrying out any type of experiment (American Psychological Association, 2015). If consent is not obtained from the parent or guardian it is a violation of Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility. Ethical standards must be met when working in the field of research in relation to animals and humans (American Psychological Association, 2015).

Conclusion

This research proposal is designed to recreate the experiment performed by Ivan Pavlov that involved children. Pavlov’s treatment of the children was unethical by today’s standards. Pavlov is famous for his experiments in classical conditioning involving salivating dogs. Pavlov also performed the same experiments with children using similar methods to those used on the dogs. Pavlov’s experiment on a child is shown in a film from the Film Media Group (2010). The use of invasive surgery techniques has far-reaching implications involving the physical and psychological well-being of the subjects and participants for the remainder of their lives. Research and experimentation have changed greatly since Pavlov conducted his experiments. Pavlov’s research and experiments violated many of the ethical guidelines put in place to protect research participants according to the American Psychological Association (APA). There is a high probability that the surgically implanted tubes caused physical harm to the children and the dogs.

Pavlov’s experiments on children violated Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, which states psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they work with professionally to take care to do them no harm. This principle protects the welfare and well-being of person’s and animals who are research subjects. This amounts to a violation of ethical principles and undermines the children’s rights to privacy and confidentiality. The effects of the experiments likely caused psychological damage to the subjects and participants. There are methods that could be used to produce the same results, without violating the child’s ethical rights, such as a pat on the arm, a reward for a good choice, or verbal praises or prompts, using praise as a reward instead of a cookie. It is also important to remember to obtain parental consent when working with subjects under the age of 18; otherwise it is a violation of Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility. Ethical standards must be met when working in the field of research with children and animals.

Reference

American Psychological Association, (2015). Ethical Principles of Psychologist and Code of

Conduct, Including 2010 Amendments. http://www.apa.org

Films Media Group (2010). Pavlov’s experiments on children. From Title: Into the Mind: Mind

Control. Retrieved from UOP Electronic Reading

Films Media Group (2010). Pavlov’s experiments on dogs. From Title: Into the Mind: Mind

Control. Retrieved from UOP Electronic Reading

Nagy, T. F. (2011). The general ethical principles of psychologists. In Essential ethics for

Psychologists: A primer for understanding and mastering core issues, 46-93.

Schunk, E. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson Education

 
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Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory assignment help

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Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory assignment help

The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in Counseling

Drawing on Techniques from Various Approaches

Techniques of Therapy

Applications of the Approaches

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Limitations in Multicultural Counseling

Contributions of the Approaches

Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

 

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

 

The Basic Philosophies

 

Key Concepts

 

Goals of Therapy

 

The Therapeutic Relationship

Limitations of the Approaches

 

The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in Counseling

Drawing on Techniques from Various Approaches

 

Techniques of Therapy

Psychoanalytic therapy The key techniques are interpretation, dream analysis, free association, analysis of resistance, analysis of transference, and countertransference. Techniques are designed to help clients gain access to their unconscious conflicts, which leads to insight and eventual assimilation of new material by the ego.
Adlerian therapy Adlerians pay more attention to the subjective experiences of clients than to using techniques. Some techniques include gathering life-history data (family constellation, early recollections, personal priorities), sharing interpretations with clients, offering encouragement, and assisting clients in searching for new possibilities.
Existential therapy Few techniques flow from this approach because it stresses understanding first and technique second. The therapist can borrow techniques from other approaches and incorporate them in an existential framework. Diagnosis, testing, and external measurements are not deemed important. Issues addressed are freedom and responsibility, isolation and relationships, meaning and meaninglessness, living and dying.
Person-centered therapy This approach uses few techniques but stresses the attitudes of the therapist and a “way of being.” Therapists strive for active listening, reflection of feelings, clarification, “being there” for the client, and focusing on the moment-to-moment experiencing of the client. This model does not include diagnostic testing, interpretation, taking a case history, or questioning or probing for information.
Gestalt therapy A wide range of experiments are designed to intensify experiencing and to integrate conflicting feelings. Experiments are co-created by therapist and client through an I/Thou dialogue. Therapists have latitude to creatively invent their own experiments. Formal diagnosis and testing are not a required part of therapy.
Behavior therapy The main techniques are reinforcement, shaping, modeling, systematic desensitization, relaxation methods, flooding, eye movement and desensitization reprocessing, cognitive restructuring, social skills training, self-management programs, mindfulness and acceptance methods, behavioral rehearsal, and coaching. Diagnosis or assessment is done at the outset to determine a treatment plan. Questions concentrate on “what,” “how,” and “when” (but not “why”). Contracts and homework assignments are also typically used.
Cognitive behavior therapy Therapists use a variety of cognitive, emotive, and behavioral techniques; diverse methods are tailored to suit individual clients. This is an active, directive, time-limited, present-centered, psychoeducational, structured therapy. Some techniques include engaging in Socratic dialogue, collaborative empiricism, debating irrational beliefs, carrying out homework assignments, gathering data on assumptions one has made, keeping a record of activities, forming alternative interpretations, learning new coping skills, changing one’s language and thinking patterns, role playing, imagery, confronting faulty beliefs, self-instructional training, and stress inoculation training.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy This is an active, directive, and didactic therapy. Skillful questioning is a central technique used for the duration of the therapy process. Various techniques may be used to get clients to evaluate what they are presently doing to see if they are willing to change. If clients decide that their present behavior is not effective, they develop a specific plan for change and make a commitment to follow through.
Feminist therapy Although techniques from traditional approaches are used, feminist practitioners tend to employ consciousness-raising techniques aimed at helping clients recognize the impact of gender-role socialization on their lives. Other techniques frequently used include gender-role analysis and intervention, power analysis and intervention, demystifying therapy, bibliotherapy, journal writing, therapist self-disclosure, assertiveness training, reframing and relabeling, cognitive restructuring, identifying and challenging untested beliefs, role playing, psychodramatic methods, group work, and social action.
Postmodern approaches In solution-focused therapy the main technique involves change-talk, with emphasis on times in a client’s life when the problem was not a problem. Other techniques include creative use of questioning, the miracle question, and scaling questions, which assist clients in developing alternative stories. In narrative therapy, specific techniques include listening to a client’s problem-saturated story without getting stuck, externalizing and naming the problem, externalizing conversations, and discovering clues to competence. Narrative therapists often write letters to clients and assist them in finding an audience that will support their changes and new stories.
Family systems therapy A variety of techniques may be used, depending on the particular theoretical orientation of the therapist. Some techniques include genograms, teaching, asking questions, joining the family, tracking sequences, family mapping, reframing, restructuring, enactments, and setting boundaries. Techniques may be experiential, cognitive, or behavioral in nature. Most are designed to bring about change in a short time.

 

 

Techniques of Therapy

 

 

Applications of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy Candidates for analytic therapy include professionals who want to become therapists, people who have had intensive therapy and want to go further, and those who are in psychological pain. Analytic therapy is not recommended for self-centered and impulsive individuals or for people with psychotic disorders. Techniques can be applied to individual and group therapy.
Adlerian therapy Because the approach is based on a growth model, it is applicable to such varied spheres of life as child guidance, parent–child counseling, marital and family therapy, individual counseling with all age groups, correctional and rehabilitation counseling, group counseling, substance abuse programs, and brief counseling. It is ideally suited to preventive care and alleviating a broad range of conditions that interfere with growth.
Existential therapy This approach is especially suited to people facing a developmental crisis or a transition in life and for those with existential concerns (making choices, dealing with freedom and responsibility, coping with guilt and anxiety, making sense of life, and finding values) or those seeking personal enhancement. The approach can be applied to both individual and group counseling, and to couples and family therapy, crisis intervention, and community mental health work.
Person-centered therapy Has wide applicability to individual and group counseling. It is especially well suited for the initial phases of crisis intervention work. Its principles have been applied to couples and family therapy, community programs, administration and management, and human relations training. It is a useful approach for teaching, parent–child relations, and for working with groups of people from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Gestalt therapy Addresses a wide range of problems and populations: crisis intervention, treatment of a range of psychosomatic disorders, couples and family therapy, awareness training of mental health professionals, behavior problems in children, and teaching and learning. It is well suited to both individual and group counseling. The methods are powerful catalysts for opening up feelings and getting clients into contact with their present-centered experience.
Behavior therapy A pragmatic approach based on empirical validation of results. Enjoys wide applicability to individual, group, couples, and family counseling. Some problems to which the approach is well suited are phobic disorders, depression, trauma, sexual disorders, children’s behavioral disorders, stuttering, and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Beyond clinical practice, its principles are applied in fields such as pediatrics, stress management, behavioral medicine, education, and geriatrics.
Cognitive behavior therapy Has been widely applied to treatment of depression, anxiety, relationship problems, stress management, skill training, substance abuse, assertion training, eating disorders, panic attacks, performance anxiety, and social phobias. CBT is especially useful for assisting people in modifying their cognitions. Many self-help approaches utilize its principles. CBT can be applied to a wide range of client populations with a variety of specific problems.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy Geared to teaching people ways of using choice theory in everyday living to increase effective behaviors. It has been applied to individual counseling with a wide range of clients, group counseling, working with youthful law offenders, and couples and family therapy. In some instances it is well suited to brief therapy and crisis intervention.
Feminist therapy Principles and techniques can be applied to a range of therapeutic modalities such as individual therapy, relationship counseling, family therapy, group counseling, and community intervention. The approach can be applied to both women and men with the goal of bringing about empowerment.
Postmodern approaches Solution-focused therapy is well suited for people with adjustment disorders and for problems of anxiety and depression. Narrative therapy is now being used for a broad range of human difficulties including eating disorders, family distress, depression, and relationship concerns. These approaches can be applied to working with children, adolescents, adults, couples, families, and the community in a wide variety of settings. Both solution-focused and narrative approaches lend themselves to group counseling and to school counseling.
Family systems therapy Useful for dealing with marital distress, problems of communicating among family members, power struggles, crisis situations in the family, helping individuals attain their potential, and enhancing the overall functioning of the family.

 

Applications of the Approaches

 

 

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Psychoanalytic therapy Its focus on family dynamics is appropriate for working with many cultural groups. The therapist’s formality appeals to clients who expect professional distance. Notion of ego defense is helpful in understanding inner dynamics and dealing with environmental stresses.
Adlerian therapy Its focus on social interest, helping others, collectivism, pursuing meaning in life, importance of family, goal orientation, and belonging is congruent with the values of many cultures. Focus on person-in-the-environment allows for cultural factors to be explored.
Existential therapy Focus is on understanding client’s phenomenological world, including cultural background. This approach leads to empowerment in an oppressive society. Existential therapy can help clients examine their options for change within the context of their cultural realities. The existential approach is particularly suited to counseling diverse clients because of the philosophical foundation that emphasizes the human condition.
Person-centered therapy Focus is on breaking cultural barriers and facilitating open dialogue among diverse cultural populations. Main strengths are respect for clients’ values, active listening, welcoming of differences, nonjudgmental attitude, understanding, willingness to allow clients to determine what will be explored in sessions, and prizing cultural pluralism.
Gestalt therapy Its focus on expressing oneself nonverbally is congruent with those cultures that look beyond words for messages. Provides many experiments in working with clients who have cultural injunctions against freely expressing feelings. Can help to overcome language barrier with bilingual clients.

Focus on bodily expressions is a subtle way to help clients recognize their conflicts.
Behavior therapy Focus on behavior, rather than on feelings, is compatible with many cultures. Strengths include a collaborative relationship between counselor and client in working toward mutually agreed-upon goals, continual assessment to determine if the techniques are suited to clients’ unique situations, assisting clients in learning practical skills, an educational focus, and stress on self-management strategies.
Cognitive behavior therapy Focus is on a collaborative approach that offers clients opportunities to express their areas of concern. The psychoeducational dimensions are often useful in exploring cultural conflicts and teaching new behavior. The emphasis on thinking (as opposed to identifying and expressing feelings) is likely to be acceptable to many clients. The focus on teaching and learning tends to avoid the stigma of mental illness. Clients are likely to value the active and directive stance of the therapist.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy Focus is on clients making their own evaluation of behavior (including how they respond to their culture). Through personal assessment clients can determine the degree to which their needs and wants are being satisfied. They can find a balance between retaining their own ethnic identity and integrating some of the values and practices of the dominant society.
Feminist therapy Focus is on both individual change and social transformation. A key contribution is that both the women’s movement and the multicultural movement have called attention to the negative impact of discrimination and oppression for both women and men. Emphasizes the influence of expected cultural roles and explores client’s satisfaction with and knowledge of these roles.
Postmodern approaches Focus is on the social and cultural context of behavior. Stories that are being authored in the therapy office need to be anchored in the social world in which the client lives. Therapists do not make assumptions about people and honor each client’s unique story and cultural background. Therapists take an active role in challenging social and cultural injustices that lead to oppression of certain groups. Therapy becomes a process of liberation from oppressive cultural values and enables clients to become active agents of their destinies.
Family systems therapy Focus is on the family or community system. Many ethnic and cultural groups place value on the role of the extended family. Many family therapies deal with extended family members and with support systems. Networking is a part of the process, which is congruent with the values of many clients. There is a greater chance for individual change if other family members are supportive. This approach offers ways of working toward the health of the family unit and the welfare of each member.

 

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

 

Limitations in Multicultural Counseling

Psychoanalytic therapy Its focus on insight, intrapsychic dynamics, and long-term treatment is often not valued by clients who prefer to learn coping skills for dealing with pressing daily concerns. Internal focus is often in conflict with cultural values that stress an interpersonal and environmental focus.
Adlerian therapy This approach’s detailed interview about one’s family background can conflict with cultures that have injunctions against disclosing family matters. Some clients may view the counselor as an authority who will provide answers to problems, which conflicts with the egalitarian, person-to person spirit as a way to reduce social distance.
Existential therapy Values of individuality, freedom, autonomy, and self-realization often conflict with cultural values of collectivism, respect for tradition, deference to authority, and interdependence. Some may be deterred by the absence of specific techniques. Others will expect more focus on surviving in their world.
Person-centered therapy Some of the core values of this approach may not be congruent with the client’s culture. Lack of counselor direction and structure are unacceptable for clients who are seeking help and immediate answers from a knowledgeable professional.
Gestalt therapy Clients who have been culturally conditioned to be emotionally reserved may not embrace Gestalt experiments. Some may not see how “being aware of present experiencing” will lead to solving their problems.
Behavior therapy Family members may not value clients’ newly acquired assertive style, so clients must be taught how to cope with resistance by others. Counselors need to help clients assess the possible consequences of making behavioral changes.
Cognitive behavior therapy Before too quickly attempting to change the beliefs and actions of clients, it is essential for the therapist to understand and respect their world. Some clients may have serious reservations about questioning their basic cultural values and beliefs. Clients could become dependent on the therapist choosing appropriate ways to solve problems.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy This approach stresses taking charge of one’s own life, yet some clients are more interested in changing their external environment. Counselors need to appreciate the role of discrimination and racism and help clients deal with social and political realities.
Feminist therapy This model has been criticized for its bias toward the values of White, middle-class, heterosexual women, which are not applicable to many other groups of women nor to men. Therapists need to assess with their clients the price of making significant personal change, which may result in isolation from extended family as clients assume new roles and make life changes.
Postmodern approaches Some clients come to therapy wanting to talk about their problems and may be put off by the insistence on talking about exceptions to their problems. Clients may view the therapist as an expert and be reluctant to view themselves as experts. Certain clients may doubt the helpfulness of a therapist who assumes a “not-knowing” position.
Family systems therapy Family therapy rests on value assumptions that are not congruent with the values of clients from some cultures. Western concepts such as individuation, self-actualization, self-determination, independence, and self-expression may be foreign to some clients. In some cultures, admitting problems within the family is shameful. The value of “keeping problems within the family” may make it difficult to explore conflicts openly.

 

 

 

Contributions of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy More than any other system, this approach has generated controversy as well as exploration and has stimulated further thinking and development of therapy. It has provided a detailed and comprehensive description of personality structure and functioning. It has brought into prominence factors such as the unconscious as a determinant of behavior and the role of trauma during the first six years of life. It has developed several techniques for tapping the unconscious and shed light on the dynamics of transference and countertransference, resistance, anxiety, and the mechanisms of ego defense.
Adlerian therapy A key contribution is the influence that Adlerian concepts have had on other systems and the integration of these concepts into various contemporary therapies. This is one of the first approaches to therapy that was humanistic, unified, holistic, and goal-oriented and that put an emphasis on social and psychological factors.
Existential therapy Its major contribution is recognition of the need for a subjective approach based on a complete view of the human condition. It calls attention to the need for a philosophical statement on what it means to be a person. Stress on the I/Thou relationship lessens the chances of dehumanizing therapy. It provides a perspective for understanding anxiety, guilt, freedom, death, isolation, and commitment.
Person-centered therapy Clients take an active stance and assume responsibility for the direction of therapy. This unique approach has been subjected to empirical testing, and as a result both theory and methods have been modified. It is an open system. People without advanced training can benefit by translating the therapeutic conditions to both their personal and professional lives. Basic concepts are straightforward and easy to grasp and apply. It is a foundation for building a trusting relationship, applicable to all therapies.
Gestalt therapy The emphasis on direct experiencing and doing rather than on merely talking about feelings provides a perspective on growth and enhancement, not merely a treatment of disorders. It uses clients’ behavior as the basis for making them aware of their inner creative potential. The approach to dreams is a unique, creative tool to help clients discover basic conflicts. Therapy is viewed as an existential encounter; it is process-oriented, not technique-oriented. It recognizes nonverbal behavior as a key to understanding.
Behavior therapy Emphasis is on assessment and evaluation techniques, thus providing a basis for accountable practice. Specific problems are identified, and clients are kept informed about progress toward their goals. The approach has demonstrated effectiveness in many areas of human functioning. The roles of the therapist as reinforcer, model, teacher, and consultant are explicit. The approach has undergone extensive expansion, and research literature abounds. No longer is it a mechanistic approach, for it now makes room for cognitive factors and encourages self-directed programs for behavioral change.
Cognitive behavior therapy Major contributions include emphasis on a comprehensive therapeutic practice; numerous cognitive, emotive, and behavioral techniques; an openness to incorporating techniques from other approaches; and a methodology for challenging and changing faulty or negative thinking. Most forms can be integrated into other mainstream therapies. REBT makes full use of action oriented homework, various psychoeducational methods, and keeping records of progress. CT is a structured therapy that has a good track record for treating depression and anxiety in a short time. Strengths-based CBT is a form of positive psychology that addresses the resources within the client for change.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy This is a positive approach with an action orientation that relies on simple and clear concepts that are easily grasped in many helping professions. It can be used by teachers, nurses, ministers, educators, social workers, and counselors. Due to the direct methods, it appeals to many clients who are often seen as resistant to therapy. It is a short-term approach that can be applied to a diverse population, and it has been a significant force in challenging the medical model of therapy.
Feminist therapy The feminist perspective is responsible for encouraging increasing numbers of women to question gender stereotypes and to reject limited views of what a woman is expected to be. It is paving the way for gender-sensitive practice and bringing attention to the gendered uses of power in relationships. The unified feminist voice brought attention to the extent and implications of child abuse, incest, rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence. Feminist principles and interventions can be incorporated in other therapy approaches.
Postmodern approaches The brevity of these approaches fit well with the limitations imposed by a managed care structure. The emphasis on client strengths and competence appeals to clients who want to create solutions and revise their life stories in a positive direction. Clients are not blamed for their problems but are helped to understand how they might relate in more satisfying ways to such problems. A strength of these approaches is the question format that invites clients to view themselves in new and more effective ways.
Family systems therapy From a systemic perspective, neither the individual nor the family is blamed for a particular dysfunction. The family is empowered through the process of identifying and exploring interactional patterns. Working with an entire unit provides a new perspective on understanding and working through both individual problems and relationship concerns. By exploring one’s family of origin, there are increased opportunities to resolve other conflicts in systems outside of the family

 

Contributions of the Approaches

 

Limitations of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy Requires lengthy training for therapists and much time and expense for clients. The model stresses biological and instinctual factors to the neglect of social, cultural, and interpersonal ones. Its methods are less applicable for solving specific daily life problems of clients and may not be appropriate for some ethnic and cultural groups. Many clients lack the degree of ego strength needed for regressive and reconstructive therapy. It may be inappropriate for certain counseling settings.
Adlerian therapy Weak in terms of precision, testability, and empirical validity. Few attempts have been made to validate the basic concepts by scientific methods. Tends to oversimplify some complex human problems and is based heavily on common sense.
Existential therapy Many basic concepts are fuzzy and ill-defined, making its general framework abstract at times. Lacks a systematic statement of principles and practices of therapy. Has limited applicability to lower functioning and nonverbal clients and to clients in extreme crisis who need direction.
Person-centered therapy Possible danger from the therapist who remains passive and inactive, limiting responses to reflection. Many clients feel a need for greater direction, more structure, and more techniques. Clients in crisis may need more directive measures. Applied to individual counseling, some cultural groups will expect more counselor activity.
Gestalt therapy Techniques lead to intense emotional expression; if these feelings are not explored and if cognitive work is not done, clients are likely to be left unfinished and will not have a sense of integration of their learning. Clients who have difficulty using imagination may not profit from certain experiments.
Behavior therapy Major criticisms are that it may change behavior but not feelings; that it ignores the relational factors in therapy; that it does not provide insight; that it ignores historical causes of present behavior; that it involves control by the therapist; and that it is limited in its capacity to address certain aspects of the human condition.
Cognitive behavior therapy Tends to play down emotions, does not focus on exploring the unconscious or underlying conflicts, de-emphasizes the value of insight, and sometimes does not give enough weight to the client’s past. CBT might be too structured for some clients.

 

Choice theory/ Reality therapy Discounts the therapeutic value of exploration of the client’s past, dreams, the unconscious, early childhood experiences, and transference. The approach is limited to less complex problems. It is a problem-solving therapy that tends to discourage exploration of deeper emotional issues.
Feminist therapy A possible limitation is the potential for therapists to impose a new set of values on clients—such as striving for equality, power in relationships, defining oneself, freedom to pursue a career outside the home, and the right to an education. Therapists need to keep in mind that clients are their own best experts, which means it is up to them to decide which values to live by.
Postmodern approaches There is little empirical validation of the effectiveness of therapy outcomes. Some critics contend that these approaches endorse cheerleading and an overly positive perspective. Some are critical of the stance taken by most postmodern therapists regarding assessment and diagnosis, and also react negatively to the “not-knowing” stance of the therapist. Because some of the solution-focused and narrative therapy techniques are relatively easy to learn, practitioners may use these interventions in a mechanical way or implement these techniques without a sound rationale.
Family systems therapy Limitations include problems in being able to involve all the members of a family in the therapy. Some family members may be resistant to changing the structure of the system. Therapists’ self knowledge and willingness to work on their own family-of-origin issues is crucial, for the potential for countertransference is high. It is essential that the therapist be well trained, receive quality supervision, and be competent in assessing and treating individuals in a family context.

 

Limitations of the Approaches

 

Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

Psychodynamic Approaches
Psychoanalytic therapy Founder: Sigmund Freud. A theory of personality development, a philosophy of human nature, and a method of psychotherapy that focuses on unconscious factors that motivate behavior. Attention is given to the events of the first six years of life as determinants of the later development of personality.
Adlerian therapy Founder: Alfred Adler. Key Figure: Following Adler, Rudolf Dreikurs is credited with popularizing this approach in the United States. This is a growth model that stresses assuming responsibility, creating one’s own destiny, and finding meaning and goals to create a purposeful life. Key concepts are used in most other current therapies.
Experiential and Relationship-Oriented Therapies
Existential therapy Key figures: Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, and Irvin Yalom. Reacting against the tendency to view therapy as a system of well-defined techniques, this model stresses building therapy on the basic conditions of human existence, such as choice, the freedom and responsibility to shape one’s life, and self-determination. It focuses on the quality of the person-to-person therapeutic relationship.
Person-centered therapy Founder: Carl Rogers; Key figure: Natalie Rogers. This approach was developed during the 1940s as a nondirective reaction against psychoanalysis. Based on a subjective view of human experiencing, it places faith in and gives responsibility to the client in dealing with problems and concerns.
Gestalt therapy Founders: Fritz and Laura Perls; Key figures: Miriam and Erving Polster. An experiential therapy stressing awareness and integration; it grew as a reaction against analytic therapy. It integrates the functioning of body and mind and places emphasis on the therapeutic relationship.
Cognitive Behavioral Approaches
Behavior therapy Key figures: B. F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura. This approach applies the principles of learning to the resolution of specific behavioral problems. Results are subject to continual experimentation. The methods of this approach are always in the process of refinement. The mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches are rapidly gaining popularity.
Cognitive behavior therapy Founders: Albert Ellis and A. T. Beck. Albert Ellis founded rational emotive behavior therapy, a highly didactic, cognitive, action-oriented model of therapy, and A. T. Beck founded cognitive therapy, which gives a primary role to thinking as it influences behavior. Judith Beck continues to develop CBT; Christine Padesky has developed strengths-based CBT; and Donald Meichenbaum, who helped develop cognitive behavior therapy, has made significant contributions to resilience as a factor in coping with trauma.
Choice theory/Reality Founder: William Glasser. Key figure: Robert Wubbolding. This short-term approach is based therapy on choice theory and focuses on the client assuming responsibility in the present. Through the therapeutic process, the client is able to learn more effective ways of meeting her or his needs.
Systems and Postmodern Approaches
Feminist therapy This approach grew out of the efforts of many women, a few of whom are Jean Baker Miller, Carolyn Zerbe Enns, Oliva Espin, and Laura Brown. A central concept is the concern for the psychological oppression of women. Focusing on the constraints imposed by the sociopolitical status to which women have been relegated, this approach explores women’s identity development, self-concept, goals and aspirations, and emotional well-being.
Postmodern approaches A number of key figures are associated with the development of these various approaches to therapy. Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg are the cofounders of solution-focused brief therapy. Michael White and David Epston are the major figures associated with narrative therapy. Social constructionism, solution-focused brief therapy, and narrative therapy all assume that there is no single truth; rather, it is believed that reality is socially constructed through human interaction. These approaches maintain that the client is an expert in his or her own life.
Family systems therapy A number of significant figures have been pioneers of the family systems approach, two of whom include Murray Bowen and Virginia Satir. This systemic approach is based on the assumption that the key to changing the individual is understanding and working with the family.

 

Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

 

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

  Defense Uses for Behavior
Repression Threatening or painful thoughts and feelings are excluded from awareness. One of the most important Freudian processes, it is the basis of many other ego defenses and of neurotic disorders. Freud explained repression as an involuntary removal of something from consciousness. It is assumed that most of the painful events of the first five or six years of life are buried, yet these events do influence later behavior.
Denial “Closing one’s eyes” to the existence of a threatening aspect of reality. Denial of reality is perhaps the simplest of all self defense mechanisms. It is a way of distorting what the individual thinks, feels, or perceives in a traumatic situation. This mechanism is similar to repression, yet it generally operates at preconscious and conscious levels.
Reaction formation Actively expressing the opposite impulse when confronted with a threatening impulse. By developing conscious attitudes and behaviors that are diametrically opposed to disturbing desires, people do not have to face the anxiety that would result if they were to recognize these dimensions of themselves. Individuals may conceal hate with a facade of love, be extremely nice when they harbor negative reactions, or mask cruelty with excessive kindness.
Projection Attributing to others one’s own unacceptable desires and impulses. This is a mechanism of self-deception. Lustful, aggressive, or other impulses are seen as being possessed by “those people out there, but not by me.”
Displacement Directing energy toward another object or person when the original object or person is inaccessible. Displacement is a way of coping with anxiety that involves discharging impulses by shifting from a threatening object to a “safer target.” For example, the meek man who feels intimidated by his boss comes home and unloads inappropriate hostility onto his children.
Rationalization Manufacturing “good” reasons to explain away a bruised ego. Rationalization helps justify specific behaviors, and it aids in softening the blow connected with disappointments. When people do not get positions, they have applied for in their work, they think of logical reasons they did not succeed, and they sometimes attempt to convince themselves that they really did not want the position anyway.
Sublimation Diverting sexual or aggressive energy into other channels. Energy is usually diverted into socially acceptable and sometimes even admirable channels. For example, aggressive impulses can be channeled into athletic activities, so that the person finds a way of expressing aggressive feelings and, as an added bonus, is often praised.
Regression Going back to an earlier phase of development when there were fewer demands. In the face of severe stress or extreme challenge, individuals may attempt to cope with their anxiety by clinging to immature and inappropriate behaviors. For example, children who are frightened in school may indulge in infantile behavior such as weeping, excessive dependence, thumb-sucking, hiding, or clinging to the teacher.
Introjection Taking in and “swallowing” the values and standards of others. Positive forms of introjection include incorporation of parental values or the attributes and values of the therapist (assuming that these are not merely uncritically accepted). One negative example is that in concentration camps some of the prisoners dealt with overwhelming anxiety by accepting the values of the enemy through identification with the aggressor.
Identification Identifying with successful causes, organizations, or people in the hope that you will be perceived as worthwhile. Identification can enhance self-worth and protect one from a sense of being a failure. This is part of the developmental process by which children learn gender-role behaviors, but it can also be a defensive reaction when used by people who feel basically inferior.
Compensation Masking perceived weaknesses or developing certain positive traits to make up for limitations. This mechanism can have direct adjustive value, and it can also be an attempt by the person to say “Don’t see the ways in which I am inferior, but see me in my accomplishments.”

 

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

 

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Period of Life Freud Erikson
First year of life Oral stage

Sucking at mother’s breasts satisfies need for food and pleasure. Infant needs to get basic nurturing, or later feelings of greediness and acquisitiveness may develop. Oral fixations result from deprivation of oral gratification in infancy. Later personality problems can include mistrust of others, rejecting others; love, and fear of or inability to form intimate relationships.

 Infancy: Trust versus mistrust

If significant others provide for basic physical and emotional needs, infant develops a sense of trust. If basic needs are not met, an attitude of mistrust toward the world, especially toward interpersonal relationships, is the result.
Ages 1-3 Anal stage

Anal zone becomes of major significance in formation of personality. Main developmental tasks include learning independence, accepting personal power, and learning to express negative feelings such as rage and aggression. Parental discipline patterns and attitudes have significant consequences for child’s later personality development.

 Early childhood: Autonomy versus shame and doubt

A time for developing autonomy. Basic struggle is between a sense of self-reliance and a sense of self-doubt. Child needs to explore and experiment, to make mistakes, and to test limits. If parents promote dependency, child’s autonomy is inhibited and capacity to deal with world successfully is hampered.
Ages 3-6 Phallic stage

Basic conflict centers on unconscious incestuous desires that child develops for parent of opposite sex and that, because of their threatening nature, are repressed. Male phallic stage, known as Oedipus complex, involves mother as love object for boy. Female phallic stage, known as Electra complex, involves girl’s striving for father’s love and approval. How parents respond, verbally and nonverbally, to child’s emerging sexuality has an impact on sexual attitudes and feelings that child develops.

 Preschool age: Initiative versus guilt

Basic task is to achieve a sense of competence and initiative. If children are given freedom to select personally meaningful activities, they tend to develop a positive view of self and follow through with their projects. If they are not allowed to make their own decisions, they tend to develop guilt over taking initiative. They then refrain from taking an active stance and allow others to choose for them.
Ages 6-12 Latency stage

After the torment of sexual impulses of preceding years, this period is relatively quiescent. Sexual interests are replaced by interests in school, playmates, sports, and a range of new activities. This is a time of socialization as child turns outward and forms relationships with others.

 School age: Industry versus inferiority

Child needs to expand understanding of world, continue to develop appropriate gender-role identity, and learn the basic skills required for school success. Basic task is to achieve a sense of industry, which refers to setting and attaining personal goals. Failure to do so results in a sense of inadequacy.
Ages 12-18 Genital stage

Old themes of phallic stage are revived. This stage begins with puberty and lasts until senility sets in. Even though there are societal restrictions and taboos, adolescents can deal with sexual energy by investing it in various socially acceptable activities such as forming friendships, engaging in art or in sports, and preparing for a career.

 Adolescence: Identity versus role confusion A time of transition between childhood and adulthood.

A time for testing limits, for breaking dependent ties, and for establishing a new identity. Major conflicts center on clarification of self-identity, life goals, and life’s meaning. Failure to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion.

 

Period of Life Freud Erikson
Ages 18-35 Genital stage continues

Core characteristic of mature adult is the freedom “to love and to work.” This move toward adulthood involves freedom from parental influence and capacity to care for others.

 Young adulthood: Intimacy versus isolation. Developmental task at this time is to form intimate relationships. Failure to achieve intimacy can lead to alienation and isolation.
Ages 35-60 Genital stage continues Middle age: Generativity versus stagnation. There is a need to go beyond self and family and be involved in helping the next generation. This is a time of adjusting to the discrepancy between one’s dream and one’s actual accomplishments. Failure to achieve a sense of productivity often leads to psychological stagnation.
Ages 60+ Genital stage continues Later life: Integrity versus despair

If one looks back on life with few regrets and feels personally worthwhile, ego integrity results. Failure to achieve ego integrity can lead to feelings of despair, hopelessness, guilt, resentment, and self-rejection.

 

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

 

 

 

The Basic Philosophies

Psychoanalytic therapy Human beings are basically determined by psychic energy and by early experiences. Unconscious motives and conflicts are central in present behavior. Early development is of critical importance because later personality problems have their roots in repressed childhood conflicts.
Adlerian therapy Humans are motivated by social interest, by striving toward goals, by inferiority and superiority, and by dealing with the tasks of life. Emphasis is on the individual’s positive capacities to live in society cooperatively. People have the capacity to interpret, influence, and create events. Each person at an early age creates a unique style of life, which tends to remain relatively constant throughout life.
Existential therapy The central focus is on the nature of the human condition, which includes a capacity for self awareness, freedom of choice to decide one’s fate, responsibility, anxiety, the search for meaning, being alone and being in relation with others, striving for authenticity, and facing living and dying.
Person-centered therapy Positive view of people; we have an inclination toward becoming fully functioning. In the context of the therapeutic relationship, the client experiences feelings that were previously denied to awareness.

The client moves toward increased awareness, spontaneity, trust in self, and inner-directedness.
Gestalt therapy The person strives for wholeness and integration of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Some key concepts include contact with self and others, contact boundaries, and awareness. The view is nondeterministic in that the person is viewed as having the capacity to recognize how earlier influences are related to present difficulties. As an experiential approach, it is grounded in the here and now and emphasizes awareness, personal choice, and responsibility.
Behavior therapy Behavior is the product of learning. We are both the product and the producer of the environment. Traditional behavior therapy is based on classical and operant principles. Contemporary behavior therapy has branched out in many directions, including mindfulness and acceptance approaches.
Cognitive behavior therapy Individuals tend to incorporate faulty thinking, which leads to emotional and behavioral disturbances. Cognitions are the major determinants of how we feel and act. Therapy is primarily oriented toward cognition and behavior, and it stresses the role of thinking, deciding, questioning, doing, and redeciding. This is a psychoeducational model, which emphasizes therapy as a learning process, including acquiring and practicing new skills, learning new ways of thinking, and acquiring more effective ways of coping with problems.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy Based on choice theory, this approach assumes that we need quality relationships to be happy. Psychological problems are the result of our resisting control by others or of our attempt to control others. Choice theory is an explanation of human nature and how to best achieve satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Feminist therapy Feminists criticize many traditional theories to the degree that they are based on gender-biased concepts, such as being androcentric, gender centric, ethnocentric, heterosexist, and intrapsychic. The constructs of feminist therapy include being gender fair, flexible, interactionist, and life-span-oriented. Gender and power are at the heart of feminist therapy. This is a systems approach that recognizes the cultural, social, and political factors that contribute to an individual’s problems.
Postmodern approaches Based on the premise that there are multiple realities and multiple truths, postmodern therapies reject the idea that reality is external and can be grasped. People create meaning in their lives through conversations with others. The postmodern approaches avoid pathologizing clients, take a dim view of diagnosis, avoid searching for underlying causes of problems, and place a high value on discovering clients’ strengths and resources. Rather than talking about problems, the focus of therapy is on creating solutions in the present and the future.
Family systems therapy The family is viewed from an interactive and systemic perspective. Clients are connected to a living system; a change in one part of the system will result in a change in other parts. The family provides the context for understanding how individuals function in relationship to others and how they behave. Treatment deals with the family unit. An individual’s dysfunctional behavior grows out of the interactional unit of the family and out of larger systems as well.

 

The Basic Philosophies

 

 

Key Concepts

Psychoanalytic therapy Normal personality development is based on successful resolution and integration of psychosexual stages of development. Faulty personality development is the result of inadequate resolution of some specific stage. Anxiety is a result of repression of basic conflicts. Unconscious processes are centrally related to current behavior.
Adlerian therapy Key concepts include the unity of personality, the need to view people from their subjective perspective, and the importance of life goals that give direction to behavior. People are motivated by social interest and by finding goals to give life meaning. Other key concepts are striving for significance and superiority, developing a unique lifestyle, and understanding the family constellation. Therapy is a matter of providing encouragement and assisting clients in changing their cognitive perspective and behavior.
Existential therapy Essentially an experiential approach to counseling rather than a firm theoretical model, it stresses core human conditions. Interest is on the present and on what one is becoming. The approach has a future orientation and stresses self-awareness before action.
Person-centered therapy The client has the potential to become aware of problems and the means to resolve them. Faith is placed in the client’s capacity for self-direction. Mental health is a congruence of ideal self and real self. Maladjustment is the result of a discrepancy between what one wants to be and what one is. In therapy attention is given to the present moment and on experiencing and expressing feelings.
Gestalt therapy Emphasis is on the “what” and “how” of experiencing in the here and now to help clients accept all aspects of themselves. Key concepts include holism, figure-formation process, awareness, unfinished business and avoidance, contact, and energy.
Behavior therapy Focus is on overt behavior, precision in specifying goals of treatment, development of specific treatment plans, and objective evaluation of therapy outcomes. Present behavior is given attention. Therapy is based on the principles of learning theory. Normal behavior is learned through reinforcement and imitation. Abnormal behavior is the result of faulty learning.
Cognitive behavior therapy Although psychological problems may be rooted in childhood, they are reinforced by present ways of thinking. A person’s belief system and thinking is the primary cause of disorders. Internal dialogue plays a central role in one’s behavior. Clients focus on examining faulty assumptions and misconceptions and on replacing these with effective beliefs.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy The basic focus is on what clients are doing and how to get them to evaluate whether their present actions are working for them. People are mainly motivated to satisfy their needs, especially the need for significant relationships. The approach rejects the medical model, the notion of transference, the unconscious, and dwelling on one’s past.
Feminist therapy Core principles of feminist therapy are that the personal is political, therapists have a commitment to social change, women’s voices and ways of knowing are valued and women’s experiences are honored, the counseling relationship is egalitarian, therapy focuses on strengths and a reformulated definition of psychological distress, and all types of oppression are recognized.
Postmodern approaches Therapy tends to be brief and addresses the present and the future. The person is not the problem; the problem is the problem. The emphasis is on externalizing the problem and looking for exceptions to the problem. Therapy consists of a collaborative dialogue in which the therapist and the client co-create solutions. By identifying instances when the problem did not exist, clients can create new meanings for themselves and fashion a new life story.
Family systems therapy Focus is on communication patterns within a family, both verbal and nonverbal. Problems in relationships are likely to be passed on from generation to generation. Key concepts vary depending on specific orientation but include differentiation, triangles, power coalitions, family-of-origin dynamics, functional versus dysfunctional interaction patterns, and dealing with here-and-now interactions. The present is more important than exploring past experiences.

 

Key Concepts

 

Goals of Therapy

Psychoanalytic therapy To make the unconscious conscious. To reconstruct the basic personality. To assist clients in reliving earlier experiences and working through repressed conflicts. To achieve intellectual and emotional awareness.
Adlerian therapy To challenge clients’ basic premises and life goals. To offer encouragement so individuals can develop socially useful goals and increase social interest. To develop the client’s sense of belonging.
Existential therapy To help people see that they are free and to become aware of their possibilities. To challenge them to recognize that they are responsible for events that they formerly thought were happening to them. To identify factors that block freedom.
Person-centered therapy To provide a safe climate conducive to clients’ self-exploration. To help clients recognize blocks to growth and experience aspects of self that were formerly denied or distorted. To enable them to move toward openness, greater trust in self, willingness to be a process, and increased spontaneity and aliveness. To find meaning in life and to experience life fully. To become more self-directed.
Gestalt therapy To assist clients in gaining awareness of moment-to-moment experiencing and to expand the capacity to make choices. To foster integration of the self.
Behavior therapy To eliminate maladaptive behaviors and learn more effective behaviors. To identify factors that influence behavior and find out what can be done about problematic behavior. To encourage clients to take an active and collaborative role in clearly setting treatment goals and evaluating how well these goals are being met.
Cognitive behavior therapy To teach clients to confront faulty beliefs with contradictory evidence that they gather and evaluate. To help clients seek out their faulty beliefs and minimize them. To become aware of automatic thoughts and to change them. To assist clients in identifying their inner strengths, and to explore the kind of life they would like to have.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy To help people become more effective in meeting all of their psychological needs. To enable clients to get reconnected with the people they have chosen to put into their quality worlds and teach clients choice theory.
Feminist therapy To bring about transformation both in the individual client and in society. To assist clients in recognizing, claiming, and using their personal power to free themselves from the limitations of gender-role socialization. To confront all forms of institutional policies that discriminate or oppress on any basis.
Postmodern approaches To change the way clients, view problems and what they can do about these concerns. To collaboratively establish specific, clear, concrete, realistic, and observable goals leading to increased positive change. To help clients create a self-identity grounded on competence and resourcefulness so they can resolve present and future concerns. To assist clients in viewing their lives in positive ways, rather than being problem saturated.
Family systems therapy To help family members gain awareness of patterns of relationships that are not working well and to create new ways of interacting. To identify how a client’s problematic behavior may serve a function or purpose for the family. To understand how dysfunctional patterns can be handed down across generations. To recognize how family rules can affect each family member. To understand how past family of origin experiences continue to have an impact on individuals.

 

The Therapeutic Relationship

Psychoanalytic therapy The classical analyst remains anonymous, and clients develop projections toward him or her. The focus is on reducing the resistances that develop in working with transference and on establishing more rational control. Clients undergo long-term analysis, engage in free association to uncover conflicts, and gain insight by talking. The analyst makes interpretations to teach clients the meaning of current behavior as it relates to the past. In contemporary relational psychoanalytic therapy, the relationship is central, and emphasis is given to here-and-now dimensions of this relationship.
Adlerian therapy The emphasis is on joint responsibility, on mutually determining goals, on mutual trust and respect, and on equality. The focus is on identifying, exploring, and disclosing mistaken goals and faulty assumptions within the person’s lifestyle.
Existential therapy The therapist’s main tasks are to accurately grasp clients’ being in the world and to establish a personal and authentic encounter with them. The immediacy of the client–therapist relationship and the authenticity of the here-and-now encounter are stressed. Both client and therapist can be changed by the encounter.
Person-centered therapy The relationship is of primary importance. The qualities of the therapist, including genuineness, warmth, accurate empathy, respect, and being nonjudgmental—and communication of these attitudes to clients—are stressed. Clients use this genuine relationship with the therapist to help them transfer what they learn to other relationships.
Gestalt therapy Central importance is given to the I/Thou relationship and the quality of the therapist’s presence. The therapist’s attitudes and behavior count more than the techniques used. The therapist does not interpret for clients but assists them in developing the means to make their own interpretations. Clients identify and work on unfinished business from the past that interferes with current functioning.
Behavior therapy The therapist is active and directive and functions as a teacher or mentor in helping clients learn more effective behavior. Clients must be active in the process and experiment with new behaviors. Although a quality client–therapist relationship is not viewed as sufficient to bring about change, it is considered essential for implementing behavioral procedures.
Cognitive behavior therapy In REBT the therapist functions as a teacher and the client as a student. The therapist is highly directive and teaches clients an A-B-C model of changing their cognitions. In CT the focus is on a collaborative relationship. Using a Socratic dialogue, the therapist assists clients in identifying dysfunctional beliefs and discovering alternative rules for living. The therapist promotes corrective experiences that lead to learning new skills. Clients gain insight into their problems and then must actively practice changing self-defeating thinking and acting. In strengths-based CBT, active incorporation of client strengths encourages full engagement in therapy and often provides avenues for change that otherwise would be missed.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy A fundamental task is for the therapist to create a good relationship with the client. Therapists are then able to engage clients in an evaluation of all of their relationships with respect to what they want and how effective they are in getting this. Therapists find out what clients want, ask what they are choosing to do, invite them to evaluate present behavior, help them make plans for change, and get them to make a commitment. The therapist is a client’s advocate, as long as the client is willing to attempt to behave responsibly.
Feminist therapy The therapeutic relationship is based on empowerment and egalitarianism. Therapists actively break down the hierarchy of power and reduce artificial barriers by engaging in appropriate self disclosure and teaching clients about the therapy process. Therapists strive to create a collaborative relationship in which clients can become their own expert.

 

Postmodern approaches Therapy is a collaborative partnership. Clients are viewed as the experts on their own life. Therapists use questioning dialogue to help clients free themselves from their problem-saturated stories and create new life-affirming stories. Solution-focused therapists assume an active role in guiding the client away from problem-talk and toward solution-talk. Clients are encouraged to explore their strengths and to create solutions that will lead to a richer future. Narrative therapists assist clients in externalizing problems and guide them in examining self-limiting stories and creating new and more liberating stories.
Family systems therapy The family therapist functions as a teacher, coach, model, and consultant. The family learns ways to detect and solve problems that are keeping members stuck, and it learns about patterns that have been transmitted from generation to generation. Some approaches focus on the role of therapist as expert; others concentrate on intensifying what is going on in the here and now of the family session. All family therapists are concerned with the process of family interaction and teaching patterns of communication.

 

The Therapeutic Relationship

 

Limitations of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy Requires lengthy training for therapists and much time and expense for clients. The model stresses biological and instinctual factors to the neglect of social, cultural, and interpersonal ones. Its methods are less applicable for solving specific daily life problems of clients and may not be appropriate for some ethnic and cultural groups. Many clients lack the degree of ego strength needed for regressive and reconstructive therapy. It may be inappropriate for certain counseling settings.
Adlerian therapy Weak in terms of precision, testability, and empirical validity. Few attempts have been made to validate the basic concepts by scientific methods. Tends to oversimplify some complex human problems and is based heavily on common sense.
Existential therapy Many basic concepts are fuzzy and ill-defined, making its general framework abstract at times. Lacks a systematic statement of principles and practices of therapy. Has limited applicability to lower functioning and nonverbal clients and to clients in extreme crisis who need direction.
Person-centered therapy Possible danger from the therapist who remains passive and inactive, limiting responses to reflection. Many clients feel a need for greater direction, more structure, and more techniques. Clients in crisis may need more directive measures. Applied to individual counseling, some cultural groups will expect more counselor activity.
Gestalt therapy Techniques lead to intense emotional expression; if these feelings are not explored and if cognitive work is not done, clients are likely to be left unfinished and will not have a sense of integration of their learning. Clients who have difficulty using imagination may not profit from certain experiments.
Behavior therapy Major criticisms are that it may change behavior but not feelings; that it ignores the relational factors in therapy; that it does not provide insight; that it ignores historical causes of present behavior; that it involves control by the therapist; and that it is limited in its capacity to address certain aspects of the human condition.
Cognitive behavior therapy Tends to play down emotions, does not focus on exploring the unconscious or underlying conflicts, de-emphasizes the value of insight, and sometimes does not give enough weight to the client’s past. CBT might be too structured for some clients.

 

Choice theory/ Reality therapy Discounts the therapeutic value of exploration of the client’s past, dreams, the unconscious, early childhood experiences, and transference. The approach is limited to less complex problems. It is a problem-solving therapy that tends to discourage exploration of deeper emotional issues.
Feminist therapy A possible limitation is the potential for therapists to impose a new set of values on clients—such as striving for equality, power in relationships, defining oneself, freedom to pursue a career outside the home, and the right to an education. Therapists need to keep in mind that clients are their own best experts, which means it is up to them to decide which values to live by.
Postmodern approaches There is little empirical validation of the effectiveness of therapy outcomes. Some critics contend that these approaches endorse cheerleading and an overly positive perspective. Some are critical of the stance taken by most postmodern therapists regarding assessment and diagnosis, and also react negatively to the “not-knowing” stance of the therapist. Because some of the solution-focused and narrative therapy techniques are relatively easy to learn, practitioners may use these interventions in a mechanical way or implement these techniques without a sound rationale.
Family systems therapy Limitations include problems in being able to involve all the members of a family in the therapy. Some family members may be resistant to changing the structure of the system. Therapists’ self knowledge and willingness to work on their own family-of-origin issues is crucial, for the potential for countertransference is high. It is essential that the therapist be well trained, receive quality supervision, and be competent in assessing and treating individuals in a family context.

 

Limitations of the Approaches

 
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Article Critique Paper In APA Format assignment help

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Article Critique Paper In APA Format assignment help

Running head: MIND OVER MILKSHAKES 2

 

MIND OVER MILKSHAKES 2

 

 

 

Mind Over Milkshakes:

Mindsets, Not Just Nutrients, Determine Ghrelin Response

Kristen Tomlinson

Florida International University

 

Mind Over Milkshakes

Summary:

Brownell, Corbin, Crum and Salovey (2011) designed a study to test the hypothesis of whether physiological satiation as measured by the gut peptide ghrelin may vary depending on the mindset in which one approaches consumption of food. The sample consisted of 46 participants from the New Haven Community in both on and off campus locations.

This study used an experimental research method because the independent variable is being manipulated and involves random assignment. There is only one main independent variable. It is the altered food labels that were used to isolate the effect of the mindset in the response to an experimental manipulation. They were scheduled for two, 2 1/2-hour sessions at the Yale Clinical Research Center Hospital Research Unit. The sessions were spread a week apart, one at 8:00 a.m. and the other at 8:20 a.m. after having an overnight fast. At the first session, the participants were told that the metabolic kitchen at the research center was working on designing two different milkshakes with different nutritional contents in them. They would taste one milkshake one week and another the following week. They were told the goal of this study is to determine whether the milkshakes taste the same and to examine the body’s reaction to the contents. This independent variable is evaluated to see how it affects the dependent variable, which is their ghrelin levels and how their body reacts to it as well as, the participants thoughts on if the milkshakes tasted good, whether it was healthy, and their feelings of hunger.

For the researcher to control how quick the participants consume the shake, they were instructed to drink the whole shake within the first 10 mins of this interval. They were all normal weight, they were asked to do an overnight fast before, so that all their ghrelin levels were around the same the next morning and they were all between the ages of 18-35. They were also screened for diabetes, pregnancy, allergies and a variety of other medical conditions.The procedure goes as follows: Participants were told they were participating in a study to see whether the milkshakes tasted similar and to examine how to the body will react to the different nutrients in the shakes. What they don’t know is that the two milkshakes are identical. To complete this study, the participants were scheduled for two, 2 ½- hour sessions at the Yale research center. At each session, an internal catheter was placed to draw blood and after a 20-minute rest, the first blood sample is drawn, followed by samples being taken at the 60- and 90-minute marks. During the first interval, participants were asked to rate the labels. Then during the second interval, they were asked to drink and rate the shake. The order of how the milkshakes were presented to the participants was counterbalanced so half received the sensi-shake in the first session and the other half received the indulgent shake in the first session.

To assess the effect of the degree of satiation and on the participants perception of healthiness and tastiness of the milkshakes, a mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted with shake type, restrained eating, and order were included in the model as factors to be used in the study (Crum et al., 2011, p. 427). The results of this study confirmed their hypothesis. When participants drank one of the shakes with an indulgent mindset, the levels of ghrelin were much lower than the participants who drank the sensi-shake, which suggests there is a relationship between satiation and craving. On the other hand, when participants drank the other shake (which was the sensi-shake) they showed a slight increase in their levels of ghrelin over the time of consumption. But they were not physiologically satiated. In this article, the authors noted that the participants rated the sensi-shake as much “healthier” than the indulgent. However, there are no significant differences in how the participants reported their feelings of hunger during the experiment which shows that there is no relationship between satiation and cravings.

Critique:

Overall this study was well designed by testing the hypothesis on whether the physiological satiation that is being measured by ghrelin, may vary depending on the mindsets of the participants when they consumed the milkshakes. The method of using the same shake for two groups of participants and the responses are very similar to the proven phenomenon of counterregulatory eating. Counterregulatory eating refers to a situation in which a person will eat more after having eaten something previously then after having eaten nothing at all. Therefore, the results of Brownell, Corbin, Crum, and Salovey (2011) makes sense because when people think they have consumed a high-calorie food they report as being full and eat less in response, whereas when people believe they have consumed a low-calorie food they report as still being hungry and eat more in response.

Based on the results, chances are that the participants pattern of ghrelin responses is consistent with what one might observe if they were to consume drinks with different caloric contents, so in that sense this study can be considered reliable (meaning it can be repeatable). Also, in the current sample of people, reliability of the restraint eating subscale was adequate. Validity is not as strong, though. Validity refers to whether the study is measuring what it is supposed to measure. When the participants drank the indulgent shake, they had a decline in their ghrelin responses than when they drank the sensible shake. Incorporating subsequent consumption is important for putting these findings in the context of the literature on restrained eating. Even though restrained eating was not a significant piece in the ghrelin responses in the study, research supports the fact that restrained eaters will respond differently to food and label cues than those who are not restraining their eating. In this study, the ghrelin profiles, were psychologically mediated and were dependent on the expectations of the milkshakes nutritional contents as opposed to the nutritional differences. However, the analyses of the measure of hunger, produced no interaction effects as a function of the shake, time, or restrained eating. So how can they measure whether subtle changes in the mindset associated with eating might affect the release of ghrelin in response to consumption if they want participants to fast overnight? I’m not sure that they were measuring their variables right. It did show that even though there were no significant differences to their hunger regardless of mindset after having consumed the milkshake, findings state that the psychological mindset of sensibility during consumption may dampen the effect of ghrelin. The ethics in this study is questionable. The sensible label manipulation may have elicited the mindset of restraint even in the participants that did not consistently report themselves as being restrained. By doing this could have caused negative results at the end of the study. Nonetheless, participants drank the indulgent shake and had a steeper decline in ghrelin than when they drank the sensible shake. Due to the nature of this research question, there is no other way to measure if changes in the mindset will influence the release the ghrelin in the body.

The method that they used for this study is better than the alternatives because they recruited a sample of random participants by putting up flyers around the community. They explained to the participants what the goal of the study was while also keeping information from them about what the study is about so that way the researches can manipulate the labels on the milkshakes. They also did a good job choosing the age range for the sample, as well as running a screening to test them for allergies, pregnancy and other medical conditions so they can make sure everything goes good with the study and they won’t have any major differences with the results. Clearly this method is a great way of exhibiting an experimental research study. Also, by using the restraint subscale allowed the researchers to have a stable factor structure across genders and weight categories.

Based on the results, in order to assess the label manipulation on the health and taste of the milkshake, a model analysis had to be used to interpret the data. For the healthiness, there was significant effect on the type of shake and no interaction effect for the restrained eating or the order in which the shakes were consumed. There were no effects on the tastiness of the shakes. Simple tests suggest that participants rated the sensible shake as being healthier than the indulgent shake. To test the effect of ghrelin and hunger, researchers assessed the data using a mixed-model with time, the type of shake, and order (session 1 and 2). The model did fail to interpret the data and effects of the order of the shakes. The participants did exhibit a steeper rise in ghrelin as well as a steep decline in hunger when they consumed the indulgent shake. Whereas, when they consumed the sensible shake, the levels of ghrelin exhibited as being flat or slightly increased over the course of consumption and were not physiologically satiated despite having the same nutritional contents. As for the measure of the hunger, the analyses produced no effects as a function of the shake, the time or the restrained eating. However, in this case the ghrelin profiles were psychologically mediated. Although the effect of psychologically mediated differences on long term alterations in weight and following consumption were not measured in this study, future research on the impact of this phenomenon on metabolic maintenance is justified. Increased ghrelin levels can cause an increase in body weight and fat gain because of the amount of caloric consumption. The flat ghrelin profiles that were shown when the participants consumed the sensible shake, may be placing them in a psychologically challenging state by showing an increase in appetite and a decrease in their metabolic rate.

Brief summary

Brownell, Corbin, Crum and Salovey (2011) designed a study to test the hypothesis of whether physiological satiation as measured by the gut peptide ghrelin may vary depending on the mindset in which one approaches consumption of food. On 2 occasions, a sample of 46 participants consumed a 380-calorie milkshake under the pretense of two milkshakes (indulgent and sensi-shake). Ghrelin was measured via IV blood samples at 3 time points: baseline, anticipatory and post consumption. During the first interval, researchers asked the participants to view and rate the (mislead) label of the milkshake. During the second interval, they were asked to drink and rate the shake. The mindset the participants had when they consumed the indulgent shake produced a steeper decline in ghrelin, whereas the mindset they had when they consumed the sensible shake was a flat ghrelin response. The satiety was consistent throughout with what they believed rather than the actual nutritional value. The authors concluded that the effect of food consumption on ghrelin may be psychologically mediated, and the mindset affects physiological responses to food.

 

 

 

References

Brownell, K.D., Corbin, W.R., Crum, A.J., & Salovey, P. (2011). Mind over milkshakes: Mindsets, not just nutrients, determine ghrelin response. Health Psychology, 30, 424-429. doi: 10.1037/a0023467

 
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Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

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Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

THE ASSIGNMENT:

 

Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

For this assignment, complete the Assessment Process sections of the treatment plan for your course project. This treatment plan is based on the case study you selected for your course project. You can review the case studies in the Case Study Treatment Plan media piece available in the resources.

The Assessment Process sections of the treatment plan that you will complete for this assignment consist of the following:

  • Identifying information.
  • Presenting problem.
  • Previous treatments.
  • Strengths, weaknesses, and social support systems.
  • Assessment.
  • Diagnosis.
  • References.

The sections of the treatment plan you submit for this assignment should be 4–5 pages in length, with a minimum of two references from current articles in the professional literature in counseling. Be sure to cite your references in current APA format.

To assist you in completing this assignment, please use the Case Study Treatment Plan Template (available in the resources) to organize your work. Each section of the template includes a description of the type of information you must include. You should type your paper directly into this template, save it as a Word document with your name, and then submit it to the assignment area.

For additional information, see the course project description.

Submit your paper to Turnitin before you post it to the assignment area so you can catch any areas that are showing up as possible plagiarism.

Note: Your instructor may also use the Writing Feedback Tool to provide feedback on your writing. In the tool, click on the linked resources for helpful writing information.

 

THE CASE STUDY

Oscar is a 19-year-old Hispanic male who is the oldest of 5 children. His family has been farming the same land for 4 generations. Currently they grow vegetables for the regional grocery chain’s produce departments. They live in a rural area of the county. Three generations live in two separate houses on their land. They are fiercely independent and have little to do with people in town, although the family itself is extremely close knit.

Oscar is currently a freshman at the same college his father attended, majoring in agriculture. When he came home for spring break, his parents noticed significant changes in his appearance. He had lost weight, looked haggard, wasn’t sleeping and seemed irritable and argumentative. He told his parents that he did not want to return to college after the break. He went on to say that his roommate had placed cameras in the room so he could record everything Oscar did while the roommate was absent. His grades were poor and he expressed that he believed his instructors were prejudiced against him. This poor performance was in stark contrast to his performance in high school, where he was in the top 10% of his class. Within days of coming home he had stopped showering and began wearing multiple layers of clothes (3 pairs of jeans and 4 t-shirts). He became essentially non-communicative, responding to questions with one-word answers and not initiating conversation. Oscar seemed unhappy or irritable whenever he encountered a member of his family and began spending all his time in his room. He even refused to talk with his youngest brother, with whom he had always been close. He did not take meals with his family, a long-standing tradition in his family, and left his room only in the middle of the night. He could then be heard opening drawers in the kitchen, going into his siblings’ rooms and leaving the house for long periods of time.

The family (parents and grandparents) became very disturbed and consulted their priest. The priest recommended that the parents take Oscar to see a fellow parishioner who is also a counselor. This counselor was also disturbed with Oscar’s presentation and recommended hospitalization. The family was very reluctant, but eventually agreed. By the time they got to the hospital, Oscar was essentially non-communicative, only nodding or shaking his head in response to direct questions.

The parents provided history that indicated Oscar had been a good student in high school and had participated in the school’s FFA club. He has always wanted to carry on the family tradition of farming. He did not have many friends, but the family attributed that to their living in the country.

The psychiatrist diagnosed Oscar with major depressive disorder, single episode, severe with psychotic features and prescribed anti-depressants. He was released three weeks later, with some improvement. One week later he was readmitted, with the same presentation he had at the previous admission. This time, though, his father reported that he had found a cache of knives in the barn, some from the house, some from the grandparent’s house and some from the barn itself. When he asked Oscar about them, Oscar responded that he needed them to protect himself from attacks. When his father asked from whom, Oscar responded that he had seen one of his college professors in the field of broccoli. That same day, Oscar’s mother found notes stuffed between Oscar’s mattress and box springs in Oscar’s handwriting. The content of them was Oscar arguing with someone about killing his younger siblings. One side did not want to do it and begged to not have to; the other side ordered the killings, saying that was the only way to keep them safe. In light of these two events, both parents were afraid for Oscar to remain at the house. Oscar swore that he would never hurt any of his family and said that was why he had been keeping away from them. His parents could not be sure that no harm would come and were unable to watch Oscar day and night. Therefore, they readmitted him to the hospital.

During this admission, Oscar was more forthcoming with his treatment team. Once they had this additional information, the team realized that Oscar’s initial diagnosis had been wrong. They began a re-assessment. Oscar acknowledged that the problems began about the time of the new semester. He was unable to complete his school work, as he was “consumed” with the need to follow instructions that were being given to him. These instructions actually began with a buzzing in his head, which quickly evolved into specific directions. When pressed, he acknowledged that he did not know who was giving him the directions, though he sometimes thought it might be Jesus. These instructions were for him to keep a log of every time he heard a door close on his hallway in the dorm. Oscar came to believe that doing this was the only way to keep his family safe from dark angels. Oscar tried to keep these voices quiet by smoking marijuana on a daily basis. While this helped in the short term, it also made it more difficult for him to complete any of his school work. By the time for spring break, the messages had begun to change. He was no longer able to keep his family safe by keeping a list; the voices told him he would have to kill them. Oscar knew that he did not want to kill his family. He could also not avoid going home for spring break. Therefore, he devised the plan to isolate himself.

Once the family recovered from their initial shock and as Oscar began to show some improvement with his new, anti-psychotic, medication, his parents and grandparents wanted to take him home to the farm. They believed that life on the farm, being outside and with hard, physical labor would cure Oscar. Finally, Oscar agreed to tell them what has been happening with him. At that point, the family agreed to residential treatment for Oscar. When asked if anyone else in the family has ever had symptoms like this, the grandfather acknowledged that he had a brother (Oscar’s uncle) who had religious visions. This brother left the family and became a monk. Later the family heard that he had died under mysterious circumstances. One of the other monks at the monastery told Oscar’s grandfather that his brother had died from engaging in a prolonged fast. The family is very lucky on two counts: 1) they have their medical insurance through the farmer’s co-op and it includes coverage for residential treatment for up to a year, and 2) this hospital has a residential treatment unit for late adolescents and young adults. You are working as a counselor at the Residential Treatment facility where Oscar has been placed. He will be here for a minimum of 6 months and as long as one year. Professional staff at this facility includes 3 counselors, an addictions counselor, a social worker (currently on maternity leave), a psychologist, and 2 nurses on every shift. Oscar’s psychiatrist is also on staff and will continue to follow his care.

The social worker usually coordinates clients’ treatment plans; however she is currently away on maternity leave so you will be the lead therapist who is coordinating Oscar’s treatment during the next 45 days. Once she returns, you will collaborate with her for developing Oscar’s post-residential treatment and resources for him and his family.

 
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Family Genogram Project assignment Help

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Family Genogram Project assignment Help

1

COUN 601

Family Genogram Project Instructions

Building Your Family Genogram

Part I (GenoPro Genogram Software)

A genogram (pronounced: jen-uh-gram) is “a pictorial representation of family relationships across several generations. It is a convenient organizing device to help you identify family patterns or develop hypotheses about family functioning” (GenoPro.com). The genogram resembles a family tree; however, it includes additional relationships among individuals. This instrument facilitates the practitioner and his client’s identification an understanding of patterns in family history. The genogram also does a better job than a pedigree chart in mapping out relationships and traits.

Even though there are a plethora of books and websites on the subject of genograms, it is worth noting that Monica McGoldrick and Randy Gerson are responsible for its initial development and popularity in clinical settings. The structure of a genogram is by and large determined by the imagination and creativity of its author. Some of the most common features on a genogram are information related to the number of families, children in a given family, and the birth order of the family members—including the number of births and deaths.

Index Person: In constructing the genogram, identify yourself as the “index person” and complete the genogram on your family.

Focus: The focus of this genogram will be on family strengths and resilience, family patterns, rules or ways of being, and the overall health of the family. Of course, you should also address any issues and concerns that may be discovered; however, do not make the genogram problem-focused, even though this is typically how it is used in counseling.

Construction: You will submit your genogram through the assignment manager via GenoPro, found by clicking the “assignments” button. This submission will come in as a GenoPro document. You will also need to attach your narrative on an MS Word document. Make sure to include the following items:

· Two preceding generations—that is, the genogram must include the index person, his/her parents, and his/her grandparents (three generations, in all). It would also be imperative that, in the event of the index person being involved in a marital or significant relationship, mention must be made of the significant other involved, including their immediate family such as their parents, siblings, and children. In the case where the index person is either a parent or a grand-parent, his/her children must be included in the genogram.

· Use the symbols as illustrated within the GenoPro software to indicate the nature of many of the relationships among family members. Be sure to indicate yourself as the index person by drawing a double circle or double square around yourself. Do not forget to include the current date on your genogram.

· Use the relationship lines to indicate significant relationships within the family system. Do not use the “normal” line provided by GenoPro. This only crowds the graphic and makes it difficult to read.

· Include a legend at the bottom right corner of the genogram document. The legend must only include items represented on the genogram.

· In order to make it easy to understand, ensure that there are notes on the genogram graphic regarding people, family events, etc., in their appropriate places (for example, on the side of a relevant person or generation). Even though this is not required for the successful completion of the assignment, it may be helpful to interview other family members about important areas of their family history. It would also be a good idea to include labels (a word or two will do) about each family member’s strengths—especially those that are either known by the index person or have a relevant connection to them.

· GenoPro gives you the freedom you need to manipulate your genogram to allow enhanced viewing on a computer system. You can shorten or lengthen lines, move entire family units around to maximize space, and more. Your objective is to work with the graph to create a genogram that is easy to view and can be understood at a glance.

Analysis: Once you have completed your genogram, you will need to interpret your family map. Analyze the genogram and who you are in the context of the family based on race/ethnicity, culture, class, gender, spiritual tradition, family life cycle, etc.

Part II (Microsoft Word document)

Written Narrative: After analyzing your genogram graphic following the guidelines above, state your interpretation of yourself in clear terms. Do this by writing a paper that describes the contributions that religion, gender, race, culture, etc., and your own unique family history have made to your personal identity. Do not forget to demonstrate your understanding of key concepts learned in this course. Apart from the quality of your written work, you will also be graded on your ability to widely, deeply, and accurately analyze and utilize theoretical concepts in describing your family’s interactional process.

Rest assured that this paper will be kept confidential. Be reminded that you are solely responsible for any information you choose to disclose in this project. Also note that you are under no obligation to reveal any information that you choose not to reveal.

The following outline must be used for your paper, using current APA format:

I. Briefly introduce your family. Discuss the sociopolitical, cultural, economic, spiritual, etc. issues in your family. Do not spend a lot of time describing demographic details that can be observed on the genogram.

· You can use first person in this narrative.

· You will not need an abstract; however, you will need a cover page. A reference page must be provided if you use citations.

II. Using the data gathered and the analyses you have made based upon your genogram and other resources, address the following questions:

A. What do you understand about yourself within the context of this multigenerational family?

B. How do the cultural, historical, and personal characteristic aspects of the information impact your understanding of the self?

C. If at all, what are the family lifecycle-related issues in the past or present that have influenced your family and/or interface with question D?

D. What intergenerational dynamics, patterns and/or themes that you have identified influence you (or others) in your current family? Jump to the last section of the present document, “Interpreting Genograms” and then draw a conclusion about your analysis.

E. What areas do you need to work on in order to become a better spouse, parent, counselor, and godly person?

Conclude this part of the assignment with personal reflections on the development of this project. Were there any issues that came to light? What did you learn?

This assignment is due by 11:59 p.m. (ET) on Sunday of Module/Week 6.

How to Build a Genogram

(Many of the symbols and definitions are adopted from GenoPro.com)

 

Although there is general agreement on the basic genogram structure and symbols, there are some variations from one author to another and some in the GenoPro software program on how to depict certain family situations, such as cutoffs, adoptions etc. (Bowen, 1980; Kramer, 1985; McGoldrick, Gerson, & Shellenberger, 1999). The following are the common to genogram construction. The male is represented by a square and the female by a circle. You may also use a diamond for a pet and the question mark for unknown gender.

Deaths are typically represented by putting an “X” through the symbol. (If you ever do a genogram with a client, ask the client how he/she would like to represent the death since putting an “X” through the symbol without their permission could be traumatizing.)

For one to be called a parent, they would have to have at least 1 of the 3 types of children: biological/natural, foster, or adopted. On the genogram, a triangle is the standard diagrammatic representation of a pregnancy, a miscarriage, or an abortion. While an abortion is represented with a horizontal line on top of the triangle, a diagonal cross in the same position indicates the death of a baby through a miscarriage. As for a still birth, it is displayed the same as its gender, though the gender symbol is two times smaller, while the diagonal cross remains the same size.

The reason is obvious as to why the children on a genogram are placed below the family line, starting from the oldest to the youngest, and from the left hand to right. Take note that these are vitally important rules to remember down the road, as the family system becomes labyrinthine. The GenoPro software, however, does allow variations in this area.

Birth, marriage, divorce, and death dates may be indicated by the initial and year (i.e., b. 89). The ages of the individuals are put in as numbers in the markers. Alcoholism (or other relevant issues) is frequently indicated by filling in the bottom part of the individual’s marker.

image1.png Genogram symbols for child links and special birth

The child links are joined together for multiple births, such as twins, triplets, etc. Identical twins (or triplets, etc.) are displayed with a horizontal line between the siblings. In the example below, the mother had two fraternal twin brothers, two identical twin sisters and triplets, one of which died at birth.

image2.png Child links are joined for multiple births such as twins and triplets

There are 4 general rules to keep in mind:

1. The female is always at the right of the family and the male is always at the left.

2. Where there is ambiguity, it is recommended to assume a male-female relationship instead of a same sex relationship.

3. It is assumed that a spouse must always be closer to his/her first partner than to subsequent partners (if any).

4. The youngest child is always at the right of the family and the oldest child is always at the left.

Family Relationships

The next genogram component is the family relationship to describe the union of 2 individuals, typically through marriage. Other family relationships are divorce, separation, cohabitation, engagement, etc. Each completed genogram needs a legend to describe the various symbols. This legend should include the emotional relationship and family relationship lines indicated on your genogram.

GenoPro uses this type of indicator for emotional and relationship lines. When there may be a discrepancy between this document and GenoPro, use GenoPro.

image3.png Legend of family relationships

Each type of family relationship is described in the table below:

image4.png This family relationship represents a married couple. There is no special symbol to distinguish a civil marriage and/or a religious marriage.
image5.png This is the generic symbol to describe a married couple no longer living together. A separation is displayed by a single oblique bar.
image6.png The married couple is separated and started legal procedure for an eventual divorce. If you know a couple is separated but you are not sure about the legal procedure, it is recommended to use the separation in fact symbol.
image7.png The married couple has divorced. No comments.
image8.png The marriage was annulled. This is a rare case, but it must be included.
image9.png One of the spouses died while married. Use this symbol only when the surviving spouse re-married. Otherwise, everyone in your ancestry will be widowed.
image10.png The two individuals are in the process of getting married.
image11.png Same as above except the individuals are living together before getting married.
image12.png There is a legal paper trail about the cohabitation. The two individuals have written contract about the cohabitation status, involving benefits such as parental responsibility, common ownership, and inheritance.
image13.png The two individuals no longer live together and are in the process of terminating their cohabitation contract.
image14.png The cohabitation contract has been terminated.
image15.png One of the partners is deceased. This situation is similar to widowed; the difference is the two individuals had a cohabitation contract rather than a marriage contract. Again, use this symbol if the surviving partner has had other partners, or every legal cohabitation will end by either a separation or a death.
image16.png Although there is no legal definition of cohabitation, it generally means to live together as a couple without being married. Use this relationship to define the generic common law spouse. There is no such thing as illegal cohabitation.
image17.png The generic symbol of two individuals no longer living together.
image18.png The two individuals lived together until one of the partner died. Same as legal cohabitation and decease, but no cohabitation agreement had been written.
image19.png A relationship where two individuals live together, but there is no affection towards another.
image20.png The action of seeing someone or dating. Be aware the terms boyfriend and girlfriend are often used for cohabitation, but not exclusively.
image21.png The two individuals are no longer dating. This could be called ex-boyfriend or ex-girlfriend. Be aware, the term ex-boyfriend and ex-girlfriend may also be used for cohabitation and separation, but not exclusively.
image22.png This is the polite term for having a mistress or a one night stand. Select this relation if children are the product of such a relationship.
image23.png One individual is abusing or has abused the other individual, including date-rape, drug-rape, and wife-rape. This type of relationship is mostly used in therapy or when a child was the product of such relationship.
image24.png A relationship not specified in the list above or is unknown to the creator of the genogram. Use this symbol to highlight an unusual type of relationship.
image25.png A blank value is used to describe an unspecified relationship when creating a new family. This is the symbol used to indicate that the user has not yet specified the type of relationship.

A family always has two parents. Use the appropriate family relationship symbol to describe the status of the family. For instance, a single parent family (single mother or single father) is still a family of two individuals, but one individual left. If a new partner or spouse is replacing one parent, create a new family to describe the relationship of the new couple.

Emotional Relationships

Although the family relationship may describe the emotional bond between the two parents, the emotional relationship component can be used to describe the emotional bond between any two individuals in the genealogy tree.

image26.png Legend of emotional relationships

Each type of emotional relationship is described in the table below. The legend symbols have been made bigger so you can see them better.

image27.png Define a cutoff relationship where the two individuals have no contact at all; characterized by extreme disengagement and emotional intensity.
image28.png Define an apathetic relationship where one or both of the individuals is indifferent to the other.
image29.png Define a distant relationship between two individuals. Communication is very limited, usually because of lifestyle differences.
image30.png Define a plain/normal relationship. This is not very useful, except to highlight a normal relationship among massively dysfunctional relationships. Therefore do not use this unless there is a situation as stated above. This emotional relationship may resemble the identical twins; however if you take a closer look, the line is colored in gray. When twins are present, the child links are connected together, producing an inverted V. If a plain/normal relationship has to be displayed, then create a non-linear line between the two twins.
image31.png Define a close relationship (friendship) between two individuals. The two individuals are friends and share secrets.
image32.png Define an intimate relationship, where communication is open, uncensored, and without secrets.
image33.png Define a fused relationship between two individuals. Each submerges “self” in the other, and the partners become fused with little space for their own identities. There are great books about this topic.
image34.png Define a hostile relationship between two individuals. The two individuals have conflicts and argue on major issues.
image35.png Define a distant-hostile relationship between two individuals. The two individuals rarely see each other, but when they are together, they argue and are hostile towards another.
image36.png Define a close-hostile relationship between two individuals. These people have frequent contact but argue and keep secrets from one another.
image37.png Define a fused-hostile relationship between two individuals. These individuals are always together yet unable to live without arguing.
image38.png Define a violent relationship between two individuals. The two individuals have conflicts which result in extreme actions such as physical force or excessive power.
image39.png The two individuals rarely see each other, but when they are together, they argue and exhibit violent behavior.
image40.png The two individuals have frequent contact, yet argue and exhibit violent behavior when together.
image41.png A violent behavior to avoid a break in the relationship when intimacy/fusion is difficult or impossible to maintain. Fusion compromises the feelings, identities and self-direction of each, thus creating instability.
image42.png One individual is abusing another individual. Use this relationship if you don’t know the exact type of abuse.
image43.png One individual is physically abusing another individual. Any non-accidental injury to an individual, typically to a child or a woman. This includes hitting, kicking, slapping, shaking, burning, pinching, hair pulling, biting, choking, throwing, shoving, whipping, or paddling.
image44.png One individual is emotionally abusing another individual. Any attitude or behavior which interferes with mental health or social development is emotional abuse. This includes yelling, screaming, name-calling, shaming, negative comparisons to others, telling them they are “bad, no good, worthless” or “a mistake”.
image45.png One individual is sexually abusing another individual. Sexual abuse is any sexual act between an adult and child, or a forced sexual action between two adults. This includes fondling, penetration, intercourse, exploitation, pornography, exhibitionism, child prostitution, group sex, oral sex, or forced observation of sexual acts.
image46.png Failure to provide for a child’s physical needs. This includes lack of supervision, inappropriate housing or shelter, inadequate provision of food, inappropriate clothing for season or weather, abandonment, denial of medical care, and inadequate hygiene.
image47.png One individual is focused unhealthily (obsessed) on another individual.
image48.png The two individuals never met. Again, this relationship is not used often but can be handy to explicitly confirm the two individuals never met. It is up to the creator of the genogram to give details about the relationship, such as “never met physically” but “met online”.
image49.png An emotional relationship not defined in the list. Use a comment to elaborate on the details of the relationship

Creating Genograms

The following are questions to consider in creating a genogram. Review your personal history and the people, existing support systems, or events that may have influenced you.

1. Who lives in the household? Where do other family members live?

2. How is each person related?

3. How do other family members view you?

4. What are changes that have occurred in the family?

5. Has anyone else lived with your family? When? Where are they now?

6. Are there any family members who have had a medical or mental illness of any kind? Who are they and how are they related to you? When did the problem(s) begin? What kind of treatment was helpful for them or available to them?

7. Are there any family members who are very close? Friends who are close? Who are they?

8. Which members help out when you need them?

9. How do you get along with each member in your home? In your family?

10. Whom do you see as the strong one? The weak one? The sick one? The bad one? The mad one? The one with all the problems? The dominant one? The submissive one? The successful one? The failure? The warm one, cold one, caring one, distant one, or the selfish one?

11. Has anyone in your family had serious medical problems? Who and what did they have?

12. What roles have you played in your family?

13. How did the family react when a particular family member was born? When a particular family member died?

14. Are there any family members who do not speak to each other or who have ever had a period of not speaking? Are there any who were/are in serious conflict?

15. Are there any family members who are extremely close? Who helps out when needed? In whom do family members confide?

16. What sort of issues occurred between the couples in your family?

17. How does each parent get along with each child? Have any family members had particular problems dealing with their children?

18. Any job changes? Unemployment? How do you like your job? What is the economic situation?

Interpreting Genograms

There are many ways to interpret a genogram. As a rule of thumb, the data must be analyzed for the following:

1. Multi-Generational Issues: Repetitive symptom, relationship, or functioning patterns can be seen across the family and over generations. Thus, you ought to examine the genogram for repeated triangles, coalitions, cut-offs, patterns of conflict, over-and under-functioning, etc.

2. Dates: Dates provide information that helps put events in perspective. For example, coincidence of dates (e.g., death of one family member or anniversary of death occurring at the same time as symptom onset in another, or the age at symptom onset coinciding with the age of problem development of another family member. Dates throw light on the impact of sequential or simultaneous happenings whose relatedness may be otherwise hard to ascertain. For example, if you find out that an individual or family was dealing with several mishaps within a given year, you can see the effect these stresses would have on family members, such as a young baby or an older child leaving home.

3. Change and Life Cycle Transitions: Changes in functioning and relationships that correspond with critical family life events. Of particular interest are untimely life cycle transitions (e.g., births, marriages, or deaths) that occur “off-schedule.”

4. Traumas: Traumas can have a dramatic impact on people. Experiencing such events as abuse; war; natural disasters; etc., their timing, and how people reacted are critical to examine.

5. Gender: Gender beliefs and values do have an influential role in families. They often create complications within the context of cross-cultural marriages, especially when involving members of different gender beliefs. A common example of such a case is if a family has sent clear messages that men are strong and do not show emotions (especially hurtful ones), you may come to understand why a given younger-generation married couple would be struggling to communicate.

6. Secrets: Secrets in a family not only take energy away from a family, but may reveal important information about boundaries and communication patterns in the family system.

7. Losses: The issue of losses is a fundamental factor in genograms. Some of the points to note under this category are: the event of sudden and critical illness, economic hardships, sudden death, disabilities, unanticipated loss or shortage of income, miscarriages, divorces, etc. Even though the impact of such losses varies from person to person, the question is: “To what extent was this event perceived as a loss?” Not all these events are perceived as losses, and the depth of loss also does vary greatly.

Much of the information and materials in this document were taken from the GenoPro website such as the rules, symbols, family relations, emotional relationship pages. Permission was given to do so by the developer of GenoPro to the developer of this document.

GenoPro Software. www.genopro.com [permission to use symbols and other materials from

GenoPro has been granted to the creator of the document]

McGoldrick, M., Gerson, R., & Petry, S. (2007). Genograms: Assessment and intervention

(3rd ed.). New York: W.W. Norton and Company

Page 6 of 14

 
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Psychology homework help

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Psychology Core Concepts

Text: Psychology Core Concepts: Zimbardo, Johnson and Hamilton 7TH EDITION (978-0-205183463) I cant found the text online maybe you can

 

Or You can access The Discovering Psychology video series on the internet for free!

 

 

  1. Go to www.learner.org
  2. Click on the blue tab near the top that reads “view programs”
  3. Many film series will be listed. They are in alphabetical order. Scroll down to Discovering Psychology: Updated Edition. Click on it.
  4. All 26 episodes from the series are listed in order. Double click on the box that says “VoD” next to the episode you wish to view. That’s it!

     

    Type 1 page for each ½ hour video unit where you submit bullets outlining the content of each ½ hour lecture (not more than one page in length) AND, SEPARATELY, ANSWER ALL LEARNING OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS FROM THE ATTACHED/ENCLOSED PACKET( state each question before each of your responses. Make sure you cite page references from the text for each of your answers).

     

    ANSWERS TO THESE QUESTIONS CAN BE FOUND IN VIDEO AND TEXT INSIDE FRONT AND BACK COVER OF TEXT WILL TELL YOU WHAT CHAPTERS CORRELATE WITH WHICH VIDEOS).

     

    Week 8 Nov. 4 videos/Obj. units 15,16

    Week 9 Nov.11 videos/Obj. units 17,18

    Week 10 Nov. 18 videos/Obj. units 19,20

    Week 4 Oct. 7 videos/Obj. units 7,8         Week 11 Nov. 25 videos/Obj. units 21/22

    Week 5 Oct. 14 videos/Obj. units 9,10     Week 12 Dec. 2 videos/Obj. units 23/24

    Week 6 Oct. 21 videos/Obj. units 11,12     Week 13 Dec. 09 videos/Obj. units 25/26

     

    Week 7 Oct. 28 videos/Obj. units 13,14

 

Objective 7

After viewing the television program and completing the assigned readings, you should be able to:

 

1. Define and compare sensation and perception.

2. Describe how a visual stimulus gets translated into “sight” in the brain.

3. Describe the field of psychophysics.

4. Be able to distinguish distal and proximal stimuli.

5. Explain why illusions provide clues to perceptual mechanisms.

6. Describe Gestalt psychology.

7. Describe the phenomenon of perceptual constancy.

8. Describe the psychological dimensions of sound and the physiology of hearing.

9. Describe the difference between top-down and bottom up processing.

10. Discuss the senses of smell, taste and touch.

 

 

Objectives 8

After viewing the television program and completing the assigned readings, you should be able to:

 

1. Define learning.

2. Describe the process of classical conditioning and show how it demonstrates learning by association.

3. Cite examples of extinction, spontaneous recovery, generalizations, and discrimination.

4. Describe the process of operant conditioning.

5. Know the distinction between positive and negative punishment and between positive and negative reinforcement.

6. Describe how observational learning occurs.

7. Discuss the varieties of reinforcement schedules, including fixed ratio, variable ratio, fixed interval and variable interval.

8. Describe cognitive influence on learning.

 

9. Describe biological constraints on learning and some possible effects that learning can have on the functioning of the body.

 

Objective 9

After viewing the television program and completing the assigned readings, you should be able to:

 

1. Define memory.

2. Compare implicit and explicit memory.

3. Compare declarative and procedural memory.

4. Describe the processes of encoding, storage, and retrieval.

5. Describe the characteristics of short-term, long-term, and sensory memory.

6. Define Schema.

7. Describe the accuracy of memory as a reconstructive process.

8. Define amnesia.

9. Describe processes of encoding and retrieval in Long Term Memory (LTM).

10. Describe short term memory (STM), note its limited capacity, and discuss two ways to enhance STM.

11. Compare semantic and episodic memory.

12. Discuss proactive and retroactive interference.

13. Describe chemical and anatomical factors involved in memory.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Objective 10

After viewing the television program and completing the assigned readings, you should be able to:

 

1. Compare inductive and deductive reasoning.

2. Define the concept, “problem”, in information processing terms and describe some ways to improve problem-solving abilities.

3. Discuss the “historical roots of methods for revealing mental processes.”

4. Describe the study of language production.

5. Explain how ambiguity in language can be resolved.

6. Give several examples of how context influences language and understanding.

7. Explain the role of visual imagery in cognition.

8. Discuss the importance of prototypes and schemas in cognition.

9. Describe what we know about the relation between cognition and brain activity.

 

Objective 11

After viewing the television program and completing the assigned readings, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe contrasting views of why human thinking is irrational and prone to error.

2. Explain the notions of heuristic thinking and analytical thinking.

3. Compare definitions of problem solving and decision making.

4. Describe the anchoring bias, availability heuristic, and representativeness heuristic.

5. Discuss why the way a problem is framed can influence a decision.

6. Define decision aversion.

7. Describe how risk affects decision making.

8. Describe at least one way in which memory and decision making can affect each other.

 

Objective 12

After viewing the television program and completing the assigned readings, you should be able to:

 

1. Compare emotion and motivation and describe their interrelationships.

2. Describe three theories concerning the sources of motivation.

3. Discuss some of the forces that drive the motivation to eat.

4. Describe some of the factors behind the motivation for sex.

5. Define the need for achievement.

6. Outline the attributions for success and failure in terms of a locus of control orientation.

7. Describe the major theories of emotion and the universality of its expression.

8. Describe the relationship between physical states and the experience of emotions.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Objectives 13

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe the functions of consciousness.

2. Describe the different levels of consciousness and the kinds of processing that occur at each level.

3. Define circadian rhythms and describe their relation to the 24-hour day cycle.

4. Describe the stages of sleep.

5. Identify the major sleep disorders and the effects of sleep deprivation.

6. Discuss the difference between night dreaming and day dreaming, and describe lucid dreaming.

7. Explain Freud’s theory of dreaming and contrast it with the Hobson-McCarley theory and the information-processing theory.

8. Give examples of the difference between a dream’s manifest content and latent content.

9. Describe the issues concerning sleep that will arise as people’s lives become more driven and as world travel becomes easier.

 

 

Objectives 14

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe hypnotic techniques, experiences, and applications.

2. Explain the difference between psychological dependence and physical addiction.

3. Define the major drug categories, and compare the effects of specific drugs, such as stimulants and depressants.

4. List and describe the characteristics of the various extended states of consciousness, such as lucid dreaming, hypnosis, mediation, hallucinations, and drug use.

5. Describe the three levels of consciousness.

6. Explain the phenomenon of “discovered memory.”

 

 

 

Objectives 15

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Define personality.

2. Compare type and traits theories of personality.

3. List and describe “The Big Five” dimensions of personality.

4. Describe Freud’s theory of personality development and the role of the id, ego, and superego in the conscious self.

5. Describe how post-Freudian theories differ from Freudian theories.

6. Describe the major humanistic theories and their contribution.

7. Describe social learning and cognitive theories and their contribution.

8. List the five most important differences in assumptions about personality across theoretical perspectives.

9. Compare the value and accuracy of standardized and projective tests of personality.

 

 

 

 

 

Objectives 16

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Define assessment.

2. Describe several ways to measure the reliability and validity of a psychological test.

3. Identify the contributions of Galton, Binet, Terman and Weschler to the science of measuring intelligence.

4. Explain how IQ is computed.

5. Summarize Howard Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences.

6. Describe the evidence for the genetic and environmental bases of intelligence.

7. List the four methodological techniques used the gather information on a person.

8. Discuss the links among intelligence, creativity, and madness.

9. Explain the function of vocational interest tests.

10. Discuss the controversies surrounding intelligence assessment.

 

 

 

 

Objectives 17

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Define and compare the difference among these terms: sex, gender, gender identity, and gender role.

2. Explain the role of pheromones in sexual arousal.

3. Describe evolutionary theory as it applies to sexual behavior.

4. Describe the similarities in and differences between males and females in the sexual response cycle and mating.

5. Summarize current research on homosexuality.

 

 

Objectives 18

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe Erikson’s eight psychosocial stages.

2. List the physical changes associated with aging.

3. Summarize the tasks of adolescence.

4. Discuss the central concerns of adulthood.

5. List the strengths and weaknesses of Kohlberg’s cognitive approach to moral development, describe the controversies around the issues of gender and cultural differences in moral judgment, and discuss the distinction between moral behavior and moral judgment.

6. Identify cultural factors that place youth at risk for unhealthy development.

7. Discuss the importance of attachment in social development.

8. List the biological and social factors that can affect health and sexuality in later life.

9. Describe the risk factors for an elderly person in a nursing home.

 

 

 

 

 

Objectives 19

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe Philip Zimbardo’s prison experiment and his conclusions about how people’s behavior is constrained by social situations.

2. Describe Solmon Asch’s experiment and his conclusions on the conditions that promote conformity.

3. Compare the major leadership styles in Lewin’s experiment and describe their effects on each group of boys.

4. Describe Stanley Milgram’s obedience experiments and his conclusions about conditions that promote blind obedience.

5. Describe the phenomenon of bystander intervention and how it reflects another aspect of situational forces.

6. Describe Serge Moscovici’s work on the influence of the minority on the majority.

 

7. Discuss various factors that contribute to aggressive behavior.

8. Explain why experimental research is necessary for understanding social influences on behavior.

 

Objectives 20

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Explain the fundamental attribution error.

2. Describe attribution theory.

3. Explain self-perception theory.

4. Summarize Rosenthal’s experiment that demonstrates the Pygmalion effect and explain its relation to self-fulfilling prophecies.

5. Describe the effect of cognitive dissonance on behavior and attitude change.

6. Describe the techniques used by cults to maintain control over their members.

 

 

 

Objectives 21

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Identify the seven criteria commonly used to determine abnormal behavior.

2. Describe the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders and how it is used.

3. Explain how psychological disorders are classified.

4. List and describe the major types of psychological disorders.

5. List the biological and psychological approaches to studying the etiology of psychopathology.

6. Summarize the genetic and psychosocial research related to the origins of schizophrenia, including subtypes and etiology.

7. Identify sources of error in judgments of mental illness.

8. Discuss stigmas against mental illness and how they can be overcome.

 

 

 

 

 

Objectives 22

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe early approaches to identifying and treating mental illness.

2. Identify the major approaches to psychotherapy.

3. Describe how psychiatrists, psychoanalysts, and clinical psychologists differ in their training and therapeutic orientations.

4. Identify the major features of psychoanalysts and explain the purposes of each.

5. Explain the goals of various behavior therapies.

6. Describe how counterconditioning can be used effectively to treat phobias.

7. Summarize the major rationale behind all types of cognitive therapies.

8. Describe the use of psychosurgery and electroconvulsive shock in the treatment of mental illness.

9. Identify the common forms of drug therapy and how they have changed the mental health system.

10. Summarize research on the effectiveness of psychotherapy.

11. Summarize the main features of client-centered therapy and Gestalt therapy and how these reflect the existential-humanistic perspective.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Objectives 23

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Define stress and list the major sources of stress.

2. Describe the role of cognitive appraisal in stress.

3. Describe the major physiological stress reactions, including the general adaptation syndrome.

4. Explain the relationship between stress and illness.

5. Describe various kinds of events that can lead to psychological stress.

6. Describe the types of coping strategies in coping with stress.

7. Explain the mind-body relationship in terms of the biopsychosocial model of health and illness.

8. Describe the effects of self-disclosure on health.

9. Describe biofeedback, how it works, and its role in behavioral medicine.

10. Discuss how personality types relate to different health outcomes.

11. List some things you can do to reduce your stress level, promote your health, and protect yourself from job burnout.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Objectives 24

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe how psychologists try to improve the human condition through the application of social psychological principles to social problems.

2. Identify at least three important stress factors for space travelers, and discuss how studying those problems can help people on Earth.

3. Define peace psychology and conflict negotiation.

4. Describe the problems faces by legal professionals when children serve as eyewitnesses.

5. Identify several signs that people are not getting enough sleep and identify the risks associated with sleep deprivation.

 

 

 

Objectives 25

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe some of the differences between EEG, ERP, CAT, MRI, PET, and fMRI techniques.

2. Describe how fMRI can be used to study visual pathways.

3. Describe some of the brain structures that underlie face recognition.

4. Support the similarity of imagery and perception by discussing the brain activity they have in common.

5. Explain how brain research can be used to help dyslexics learn to process language stimuli more effectively.

6. Describe how studies of the brain can reveal unconscious stereotypes.

 

 

 

Objectives 26

 

After viewing the program and completing the reading assignment, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe the differences between Eastern and Western cultures in terms of the weight given to individual and group factors to explain behavior.

2. Cite examples of how the Western value on individualism manifests itself.

3. Describe the African cultural values that have benefited African Americans in their struggle against bigotry.

4. List several factors that put Latino immigrants at risk for depression and alienation.

5. Cite evidence that psychology can help solve some of society’s most perplexing problems and cite evidence to the contrary.

 
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Psychology homework help

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Psychology homework help

ZAPS Assignments:

ZAPS is a set of interactive online experiments and demonstrations that will allow you to experience the various psychological phenomenon, as well as, serve as an additional tool to reinforce the theoretical basis behind each experiment and demonstration. All of the experiments will also be discussed in a real-world context. Your grade will be based on these summaries, NOT the grade provided by the ZAPS website when you finish the experiment

Please answer the ZAPS question below:

ZAPS 5: Serial Position Effect—The goal of the current ZAPS is to understand how we store and retrieve information from memory.

In your summary, answer the following questions: What is the primacy effect? Why do we see the primacy effect? What is the recency effect? Why do we see the recency effect? Did you tend to remember the first few words and the last few words? What strategies did you use to remember the items?

ZAPS 6: False Memory Task—the goal of this ZAPS is to introduce you to the DRM paradigm and explain how schemas can influence our memory.

In your summary please report your results for the three conditions. Were your results similar to the reference results? Why or why not? Based on your reading this week, and the ZAPS, what is a schema? How can a schema result in a false memory?

The rubric:

Points

Awarded

0

1-­‐‑2

3-­‐‑4

5

Criteria

The

assignment

does not address any aspects of the

assignment as

outlined.

The

assignment

addresses a few aspects of the

assignment

and indicates that you paid attention to

the

instructions.

The

assignment addresses

most of the aspects of the

assignment

and is

supported by course material.

The

assignment

addresses all aspects of the

assignment

and

demonstrates a thoughtful consideration

of the subject matter and is supported by course material.

 

 
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Using The Triage Assessment Form

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Using The Triage Assessment Form

Using the Triage Assessment Form

 

After reading the case examples in the Myer and Conte (2006) article, you have a better understanding of how to use one type of assessment tool. A Microsoft Word copy of the Triage Assessment Form (TAF) is included in the assignment Resources. The most current version of this form is also shown in your James and Gilliland (2013) text, pages 63–65. Use the form to analyze Jordan, described below. You can save the form as you have completed it as a MS Word document or as a PDF document, and attach the form to your written paper as an appendix.

 

Rate the client in each of the three domains (Affective, Behavioral, and Cognitive) using the Severity Scale included with each domain on the Triage Assessment Form (TAF) and total the scores. Describe, in detail, the rationale for your ratings, including your judgment about how intense and directive the treatment should be based upon the total score. In your discussion of the rationale, summarize diagnostic skills and techniques that can be used to screen for addiction, aggression, and danger to self and others, as you note these risks in your client. Similarly, a possible co-occurring mental disorder (such as substance abuse) may become apparent during a crisis, disaster, or other trauma-causing event that ties in with your assessment during the client’s crisis. Note this as well in your rationale.

 

Project Objectives

 

To successfully complete this project, you will be expected to:

 

· Summarize diagnostic skills and techniques used to screen for addiction, aggression, and danger to self and others, as well as co-occurring mental disorders during a crisis, disaster, or other trauma-causing events.

 

· Evaluate key elements of the crisis, disaster, or trauma-causing event including the nature of the crisis and associated risks, including client and counselor safety.

 

· Discuss developmental and cultural considerations in crisis assessment and intervention.

 

· Exhibit proficiency in effective, credible academic writing, and critical thinking skills.

 

Note: A template for your APA formatted paper is included in the assignment Resources. Please use the template to present the assignment criteria in an organized way. The headings guide you to the criteria, and the details that are included describe what is necessary to complete the assignment to a Distinguished degree.

 

Case

 

 

 

Jordan

 

Jordan arrives at counseling saying that her husband, Jake, left the house earlier that day in an agitated mood and with his rifle, and tearfully discloses concerns about her safety and his. She states that her friend, who has been worried about her for some time, insisted that she see a counselor. Jordan says she was surprised at Jake’s abrupt departure because she was unaware of any plans he had to go hunting, and if he was not going hunting, why he would take his gun out. She recalls that she and Jake had fought the previous night over his drinking. Jordan reports that she asked Jake to stop drinking so much, and in response, he threatened her and slammed a few doors. She recalls that Jake said he liked being a little drunk and pushed her back against the kitchen counter at one point. When Jake went back into a spare bedroom to sleep that night, Jordan found numerous beer bottles in the den and a large empty whiskey bottle in front of his truck. Jordan states that it was not unusual for Jake to put his rifle in his truck when he planned to go hunting, but when he had done so today, he had still been quite angry about her accusation that he was drinking too much. After he left, Jordan reports that she began shaking. She felt fear for her own safety, so she called her friend who insisted that she speak to a counselor. While Jordan was on her way to counseling, her husband called her. He seemed calm, asked about her day, and said nothing about the previous night or his abrupt departure. Jordan states that this switch in mood from extreme aggression to a pleasant tone “seems weird.” Jordan asks for help in dealing with her husband’s odd behaviors. She fears for her own safety and the safety of her husband, but is unwilling to call the police. As she speaks, she is agitated and continually looks over at the doorway, as though expecting it to burst open.

 

Project Requirements

 

· Content: Prepare a comprehensive paper that includes all elements described.

 

· Components: The paper must include a title page, abstract, and reference list.

 

· Written communication: Develop accurate written communication and thoughts that convey the overall goals of the project and do not detract from the overall message.

 

· APA formatting: Resources and citations must be formatted according to APA (6th Edition) style and formatting.

 

· Number of pages: The body of the paper should fall within 3–5 pages of text, plus 3 pages of the Triage Assessment Form, excluding title page and reference list.

 

· Number of resources: Minimum of 4 current resources, published within the last 12 years, and you may include your text as one.

 

· Font and font size: Times New Roman, 12-point.

 

Submit the completed paper and form to the assignment area.

 

 
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Psychology homework help

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Psychology homework help

Due Oct 1

 

Text: Psychology Core Concepts: Zimbardo, Johnson and Hamilton 7TH EDITION (978-0-205183463) I cant found the text online maybe you can

 

Or You can access The Discovering Psychology video series on the internet for free!

 

 

  1. Go to www.learner.org
  2. Click on the blue tab near the top that reads “view programs”
  3. Many film series will be listed. They are in alphabetical order. Scroll down to Discovering Psychology: Updated Edition. Click on it.
  4. All 26 episodes from the series are listed in order. Double click on the box that says “VoD” next to the episode you wish to view. That’s it!

     

    Type 1 page for each ½ hour video unit where you submit bullets outlining the content of each ½ hour lecture (not more than one page in length) AND, SEPARATELY, ANSWER ALL LEARNING OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS FROM THE ATTACHED/ENCLOSED PACKET( state each question before each of your responses. Make sure you cite page references from the text for each of your answers).

     

    ANSWERS TO THESE QUESTIONS CAN BE FOUND IN VIDEO AND TEXT INSIDE FRONT AND BACK COVER OF TEXT WILL TELL YOU WHAT CHAPTERS CORRELATE WITH WHICH VIDEOS).

 

Objectives 5

After viewing the television program and completing the assigned readings, you should be able to:

 

1. State the primary interest of developmental psychologists.

2. Describe the various ways that development is documented, including longitudinal, cross sectional and sequential.

3. Describe cognitive development across the lifespan.

4. Identify Piaget’s stages of cognitive development.

5. Describe some contemporary perspectives on early cognitive development.

6. Describe physical development across the lifespan.

7. Describe how habituation studies can be used on infants to determine what they can understand.

8. Describe several ways that we know infants are not born as blank slates, but instead, come equipped with temperaments, preferences, and biases.

9. Describe several ways that the environment is known to affect skills and behaviors.

 

Objectives 6

After viewing the television program and completing the assigned readings, you should be able to:

 

1. Describe the structure of language, including syntax, grammar, and semantics.

2. Define a child’s “language making capacity.”

3. Provide evidence of the universality of language acquisition and the way it progresses.

4. Explain Chomsky’s hypothesis that humans are born with an innate biological capacity for language acquisition.

5. Explain how “motherese” (or “parentese”) helps babies learn to communicate.

6. Describe the use of intonation by both young children and adults in their communication with each other.

 
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Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder

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Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder

Meningitis stands as a formidable neurological disorder, casting a shadow over the protective layers enfolding the brain and spinal cord, known as the meninges. This condition, triggered by infections, ignites an inflammatory response within these membranes, heralding potential peril if left unchecked. Defined by its severity, meningitis demands swift recognition and intervention to avert dire consequences. While the causative agents of meningitis vary, ranging from bacteria to viruses, fungi, and parasites, the ramifications remain grave, necessitating a keen understanding of its etiology and pathophysiology. As signs and symptoms manifest, the diagnostic criteria outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5) serve as guiding beacons in the labyrinth of diagnosis. Treatment regimens, predominantly consisting of intravenous antibiotics or antiviral medications, coupled with patient education, form the cornerstone in navigating the treacherous terrain of meningitis management. This paper endeavors to unravel the intricacies of meningitis, delving into its causes, signs and symptoms, etiology, pathophysiology, DMS-5 diagnosis, treatment regimens, and patient education, culminating in a comprehensive understanding of this neurological menace. (Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder)

Causes of Meningitis

Meningitis, a neurological affliction, stems from a multitude of causative agents, each wielding its potency in instigating this formidable disorder. Among these agents, bacteria, viruses, fungi, and parasites reign supreme, infiltrating the body’s defenses to wreak havoc upon the delicate meninges enveloping the brain and spinal cord.

Bacterial meningitis, renowned for its ferocity, arises from an array of bacterial strains, each harboring the potential for devastation. Streptococcus pneumoniae, a ubiquitous bacterium, stands as a prominent protagonist in this tale of affliction, its virulence capable of breaching the body’s defenses with alarming ease. Neisseria meningitidis, another formidable foe, ensnares its victims in a web of inflammation, propelling them into the throes of meningitis. Haemophilus influenzae type b, though less prevalent in the wake of vaccination efforts, retains its ability to incite chaos within the confines of the central nervous system.

Viral meningitis, though often less severe, emerges as a formidable adversary, fueled by enteroviruses such as coxsackievirus and echovirus. These viral assailants, while typically manifesting in milder forms, remain relentless in their quest to breach the body’s defenses and sow discord within the meninges.

Fungal and parasitic meningitis, though less commonly encountered, wield their brand of menace, particularly among individuals with compromised immune systems. Fungi such as Cryptococcus neoformans and parasites like Trypanosoma brucei bear testament to the diverse array of pathogens capable of precipitating meningitis.

The causes of meningitis are as diverse as they are formidable, spanning a spectrum of infectious agents that assail the body’s defenses with unwavering resolve. From bacteria to viruses, fungi, and parasites, each pathogen carries with it the potential for devastation, underscoring the critical importance of vigilance and comprehensive management in the face of this neurological affliction. (Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder)

Signs and Symptoms

Meningitis, a neurological malady of grave concern, announces its presence through a constellation of signs and symptoms, serving as harbingers of the turmoil unfolding within the delicate confines of the meninges. While the manifestations may vary in intensity and presentation, they collectively underscore the urgent need for vigilance and prompt intervention in the face of this formidable adversary.

Headache, often described as relentless and throbbing, emerges as a sentinel symptom of meningitis, heralding the onset of neurological turmoil. Fever, accompanied by chills, sweats, and malaise, serves as a telltale sign of the body’s fervent battle against the invading pathogens. Neck stiffness, a hallmark feature of meningitis, reflects the inflammation coursing through the meninges, rendering movement a painful endeavor.

Sensitivity to light, known as photophobia, emerges as a common complaint among individuals grappling with meningitis, further underscoring the sensory onslaught accompanying this neurological affliction. Nausea and vomiting, though nonspecific, contribute to the constellation of symptoms, signaling the disruption of normal physiological processes.

In severe cases, meningitis may precipitate altered mental status, ranging from confusion to lethargy and even coma, underscoring the dire consequences of unchecked inflammation within the central nervous system. Seizures, though less common, serve as harbingers of neurological instability, compelling urgent intervention to mitigate the risk of further complications.

As the signs and symptoms of meningitis unfold, they serve as poignant reminders of the body’s vulnerability in the face of microbial assault. From the relentless headache to the feverish tumult and neck stiffness, each manifestation bears testament to the urgency of early recognition and comprehensive management in the quest to safeguard neurological integrity. Through vigilant monitoring and prompt intervention, the impact of meningitis can be mitigated, offering hope amidst the tumult of neurological affliction. (Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder)

Etiology of Meningitis

Meningitis, a neurological scourge of significant concern, draws its origins from a diverse array of etiological agents, each wielding its potency in precipitating the inflammation that ensnares the delicate meninges. While the causative factors may vary, ranging from bacteria to viruses, fungi, and parasites, they collectively underscore the multifaceted nature of this formidable disorder.

Bacterial meningitis, notorious for its severity, arises from a pantheon of bacterial strains, each bearing the potential for devastation within the central nervous system. Streptococcus pneumoniae, a ubiquitous bacterium renowned for its virulence, stands at the forefront of this onslaught, its propensity for breaching the body’s defenses with alarming ease. Neisseria meningitidis, another formidable foe, instigates chaos within the meninges, propelling individuals into the throes of meningitis. Though less prevalent in the wake of vaccination efforts, Haemophilus influenzae type b retains its ability to incite inflammation and neurological turmoil.

Viral meningitis, while often less severe, emerges as a formidable adversary, fueled by enteroviruses such as coxsackievirus and echovirus. These viral assailants, though typically manifesting in milder forms, remain relentless in their quest to breach the body’s defenses and sow discord within the meninges.

Fungal and parasitic meningitis, though less commonly encountered, wield their brand of menace, particularly among individuals with compromised immune systems. Fungi such as Cryptococcus neoformans and parasites like Trypanosoma brucei bear testament to the diverse array of pathogens capable of precipitating meningitis.

The etiology of meningitis is as diverse as it is formidable, spanning a spectrum of infectious agents that assail the body’s defenses with unwavering resolve. From bacteria to viruses, fungi, and parasites, each pathogen carries with it the potential for devastation, underscoring the critical importance of vigilance and comprehensive management in the face of this neurological affliction. (Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder)

Pathophysiology

The pathophysiology of meningitis unveils an intricate cascade of events, triggered by the infiltration of infectious agents into the central nervous system, leading to inflammation and disruption of the delicate meningeal membranes enveloping the brain and spinal cord. This inflammatory response, while aimed at neutralizing the invading pathogens, sets the stage for a tumultuous battle within the confines of the cerebral realm.

Upon breach of the blood-brain barrier, bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites gain access to the cerebrospinal fluid, setting in motion a series of inflammatory cascades. Activation of immune cells, particularly macrophages and neutrophils, heralds the body’s defense mechanisms, leading to the release of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines. These molecular messengers, while intended to eradicate the invading pathogens, contribute to the escalation of inflammation within the meninges.

As inflammation ensues, vascular permeability increases, allowing for the extravasation of fluid, proteins, and immune cells into the cerebrospinal fluid. This influx of inflammatory mediators exacerbates the swelling and irritation of the meninges, further compromising the integrity of the central nervous system.

The disruption of cerebrospinal fluid dynamics, coupled with increased intracranial pressure, precipitates neurological complications, including cerebral edema and hydrocephalus. Impaired cerebrospinal fluid circulation exacerbates the buildup of pressure within the cranial vault, placing undue strain on vital neurological structures.

As the pathophysiological cascade unfolds, the delicate balance within the central nervous system is perturbed, paving the way for a myriad of neurological sequelae. From altered mental status to seizures and coma, the consequences of unchecked inflammation within the meninges are dire, underscoring the urgency of early recognition and intervention.

The pathophysiology of meningitis is characterized by a complex interplay of inflammatory mediators and immune responses, culminating in neurological turmoil within the central nervous system. Through a comprehensive understanding of these pathophysiological mechanisms, clinicians can navigate the treacherous terrain of meningitis management, offering hope amidst the tumult of neurological affliction. (Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder)

DMS-5 Diagnosis

The diagnosis of meningitis, as outlined in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-5), relies on a comprehensive evaluation encompassing medical history, physical examination, and laboratory investigations. While the DSM-5 primarily focuses on psychiatric disorders, its diagnostic criteria provide valuable guidance in confirming the presence of meningitis and elucidating its underlying cause.

Clinical evaluation begins with a thorough medical history, probing for symptoms indicative of meningitis, such as headache, fever, neck stiffness, and altered mental status. The presence of risk factors, including recent travel, exposure to individuals with infectious diseases, or immunocompromised status, may further inform the diagnostic process.

Physical examination plays a pivotal role in identifying signs suggestive of meningitis, such as nuchal rigidity, Kernig’s sign, and Brudzinski’s sign. These maneuvers, aimed at assessing neck stiffness and eliciting meningeal irritation, aid in confirming the clinical suspicion of meningitis.

Laboratory investigations serve as crucial adjuncts in the diagnostic workup, encompassing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis, blood cultures, and imaging studies. CSF analysis, obtained via lumbar puncture, reveals characteristic findings indicative of meningitis, including elevated white blood cell count, elevated protein levels, and decreased glucose levels. Blood cultures are performed to identify the causative pathogen, guiding targeted antimicrobial therapy. Imaging studies, such as computed tomography (CT) or magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), may be employed to assess for complications, such as cerebral edema or hydrocephalus.

The DSM-5 diagnosis of meningitis involves a multifaceted approach encompassing clinical evaluation, laboratory investigations, and imaging studies. Through a systematic assessment of symptoms, signs, and ancillary findings, clinicians can establish a definitive diagnosis of meningitis, guiding appropriate management and mitigating the risk of neurological sequelae. (Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder)

Treatment Regimens and Patient Education

Effective management of meningitis hinges upon a multifaceted approach encompassing pharmacological interventions, supportive care, and patient education. Timely initiation of treatment is paramount to mitigate the risk of complications and improve patient outcomes.

Pharmacological Interventions: Treatment regimens for meningitis vary depending on the underlying etiology, with bacterial, viral, fungal, and parasitic causes necessitating distinct therapeutic approaches. Bacterial meningitis typically requires empiric antibiotic therapy targeting common pathogens such as Streptococcus pneumoniae, Neisseria meningitidis, and Haemophilus influenzae type b. Intravenous administration of broad-spectrum antibiotics, such as third-generation cephalosporins or vancomycin, is initiated pending results of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) analysis and blood cultures. Once the causative organism is identified, antibiotic therapy may be tailored to target the specific pathogen.

Viral meningitis, often less severe than bacterial meningitis, is primarily managed with supportive care, including analgesics for headache and fever, as well as antiemetics for nausea and vomiting. Antiviral medications, such as acyclovir, may be considered in cases of herpes simplex virus or other specific viral etiologies.

Fungal and parasitic meningitis require targeted antifungal and antiparasitic therapy, respectively, often administered intravenously for optimal drug delivery to the central nervous system. Close monitoring of therapeutic drug levels and renal function is essential to ensure efficacy and minimize the risk of adverse effects.

Supportive Care: In addition to pharmacological interventions, supportive care plays a crucial role in the management of meningitis. Hydration is paramount to prevent dehydration and maintain adequate cerebrospinal fluid volume. Pain management, including the use of analgesics and antipyretics, alleviates discomfort and fever associated with meningitis. Close monitoring of vital signs and neurological status allows for timely detection of complications, warranting prompt intervention.

Patient Education: Patient education is integral to the management of meningitis, empowering individuals and their caregivers with the knowledge and skills necessary to optimize recovery and prevent recurrence. Key aspects of patient education include:

  • Understanding the nature of meningitis, its causes, and potential complications.
  • Adherence to prescribed medication regimens, including completion of antibiotics or antiviral medications as directed.
  • Recognition of warning signs indicating worsening symptoms or complications, such as severe headache, seizures, or altered mental status, prompting immediate medical attention.
  • Adoption of preventive measures, such as vaccination against bacterial meningitis strains and practicing good hygiene to reduce the risk of viral transmission.
  • Follow-up care, including scheduled medical appointments and monitoring for long-term sequelae, such as hearing loss or cognitive impairment.

By fostering a collaborative partnership between healthcare providers and patients, comprehensive patient education enhances treatment outcomes and promotes holistic well-being in the management of meningitis. (Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder)

Conclusion

Meningitis remains a formidable neurological disorder, characterized by inflammation of the meninges and precipitated by a variety of infectious agents. Through a comprehensive examination of its causes, signs and symptoms, etiology, pathophysiology, DSM-5 diagnosis, treatment regimens, and patient education, this essay has shed light on the multifaceted nature of this condition. By employing a multifaceted approach encompassing pharmacological interventions, supportive care, and patient education, clinicians can navigate the complexities of meningitis management, mitigating the risk of complications and improving patient outcomes. Timely recognition and intervention are paramount, underscoring the importance of early diagnosis and comprehensive management strategies. By fostering a collaborative partnership between healthcare providers and patients, holistic care can be delivered, offering hope amidst the challenges posed by this neurological affliction. Through continued research and advancements in medical science, the quest to conquer meningitis persists, paving the way for improved treatment modalities and enhanced patient care. (Nursing Paper Example on Meningitis: A Neurological Disorder)

References

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK459360/

 

 
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