Self Esteem homework help

Self Esteem homework help

The Relationship between Perceived Stress, Self Esteem, Way of Coping and Problem Solving Ability among School

Going Adolescents

Prashant Srivastava and Manisha Kiran

ABSTRACT

Background: Adolescence, a vital stage of growth and development, marks the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. Healthy self-esteem is the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life, stress and being worthy of happiness. Aims & Objectives: To see the relationship between perceived stress, self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability among school going adolescents. Method: 200 school going adolescents (100 male & 100 female respondents) have been included randomly. Semi-Structured Socio Demographic datasheet, Perceived Stress Scale and Rosenberg Self Esteem Scale, Way of coping Questionnaire and Problem Solving Inventory was used. Data collected was analyzed using SPSS- 20. Result: Positive correlation was found between perceived stress and way of coping as well as with problem solving ability. There was also significant negative correlation found between perceived stress and self-esteem, self-esteem and problem solving ability, way of coping and problem solving ability.

Key words: Perceived stress, Self-esteem, Way of coping, Problem solving ability.

INTRODUCTION

Adolescence, a vital stage of growth and development, marks the period of transition from childhood to adulthood. It is one of the important stages in the life span of a human being when very rapid changes take place both physically as well as psychologically. Adolescence is also the stage when young people extend their relationships beyond parents and family and are intensely influenced by their peers and the outside world in general.

Journal of Psychosocial Research Vol. 10, No. 2, 2015, 199-209

This Paper was presented at International Seminar on: Social Work Practice: Concerns and Challenges for the 21st Century

held at Department of Social Work, Jain Vishwa Bharti Institute, Ladnun, Rajasthan on October 12-13, 2014.

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Adolescent moral development has been conceptualized in three phases (i.e., pre- conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality) by (Kohlberg, 1978). (Gilligan, 1993) advanced understanding by exploring observed gender differences in how boys and girls approach moral dilemmas, demonstrating that generally, boys seek direct resolution and girls will avoid conflict to maintain a relationship (Rew, 2005). These differences are likely to be reflected in how boys and girls cope with stressors.

Adolescence and perceived stress, self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability

Adolescence can be specifically turbulent as well as a dynamic period of one’s growth and development. Healthy self-esteem is the experience of being competent to cope with the basic challenges of life, stress and being worthy of happiness. Stress is the major source of many problems among adolescents and it may lead to low self-esteem, poor way of coping and poor problem solving ability. Many psychological problems such as depression and suicide occur as a result of low self-esteem, poor way of coping and poor problem solving ability

It is now quite widely accepted that adolescence is a time of involving multi- dimensional changes: biological, psychological (including cognitive) and social. Biologically, adolescents are experiencing pubertal changes, changes in brain structure and sexual interest, as a start. Psychologically, adolescents’ cognitive capacities are maturing. And finally, adolescents are experiencing social changes through school and other transitions and roles they are assumed to play in family, community and school (National Research Council [NRC], 2002). These changes occur simultaneously and at different paces for each adolescent within each gender, with structural and environmental factors often impacting adolescents’ development.

Wilburn and Smith (2005) found in his study “Stress, Self Esteem and Suicidal Ideation in Late Adolescents”. Sample. The Life Experience Survey, the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Suicidal Ideation Questionnaire were used for the study. The results revealed that both stress and self-esteem were significantly related to suicidal ideation and low self esteem and stressful life events significantly predict suicidal ideation.

Gayle et al. (2005) found among 37 highly stressed children with stress affected and highly stressed with stress coped children. The study showed that stress coped children to be more adjusted and competent. They had higher self esteem more positive coping strategies and problem solving skills than stress affected children.

Frydenberg and Lewis (1991) suggests that girls report using more social support strategies and less productive means of coping.

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MATERIAL & METHODS

Aim

To see the relationship among school going adolescent in terms of perceived stress, self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability.

Universe of the study

Class 9th and 10th students of St. Joseph’s Boys High School and Anita Girls High School, Kanke, Ranchi, constituted as universe of the study as aim of the present study was to see the relationship among school going adolescent in terms of perceived stress, self- esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability.

Hypothesis

There will be no significant correlation among perceived stress self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability among school going adolescents.

Sample

The sample comprised of 200 adolescents who met the inclusion and exclusion criteria using simple random sampling technique. Samples were further divided into 100 male adolescents and 100 female adolescents.

INCLUSION AND EXCLUSION CRITERIA

Inclusion criteria for both groups

� Studying in 9th and 10th standard.

� The age range 12-19 years.

� Both male and female.

� Willing to participate in the study.

Exclusion criteria for both groups

� Not staying with biological parents.

� Absence/death of mother or father or both.

� Death of first degree relative in last one year.

� Student who goes for work after school.

� History Suggestive any significant life events.

� History suggestive of any psychiatric illness.

� History suggestive of any physical illness.

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TOOLS USED FOR ASSESSMENT

� Socio Demographic Data Sheet.

� Perceived Stress Scale – 10 item version (Cohen and Williamson, 1988)

� Rosenberg Self Esteem (Rosenberg, 1965)

� Way of coping (Folkman and Lazarus, 1978)

� Problem Solving Inventory (Heppner and Petersen, 1982)

DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS

Socio Demographic Data Sheet

Self designed semi-structured socio demographic data sheet was used for collecting the necessary information regarding age, sex, education, domicile, ethnicity, religion, type of family of students.

Perceived Stress Scale – 10 item version (Cohen and Williamson, 1988)

This concept was measured with the four-item version of the Cohen’s perceived stress scale (PSS). PSS-4 is an economical and simple psychological instrument that measures the degree to which situations in one’s life over the past month are appraised as stressful. The questions are of a general nature and items are designed to detect how unpredictable, uncontrollable, and overloaded respondents find their lives, e.g. “How often have you felt that you were unable to control the important things in your life?” and, “How often have you felt confident about your ability to handle your personal problems?”. Students responded on a five-point scale (0= “never”, 1= “almost never”, 2= “sometimes”, 3= “fairly often”, 4= “very often”). Items were recorded so that higher scores indicated more perceived stress. Cronbach’s alpha coefficients were 0.74 (Germany), 0.75 (Poland), 0.67 (Bulgaria), 0.50 (UK) and 0.54 (Slovakia). The PSS score was obtained by summing up answers to individual questions.

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenberg, 1965)

Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was developed by Rosenberg (1965) for measuring global self-esteem levels of adolescents. RSES is a Gutman-type scale with four response options ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (4), and consists of 10 items, 5 positively scored and 5 negatively scored. RSES includes such statements as the following: “I do not have much to be proud of”, “I am proud of myself”, and “I take a positive attitude toward myself”. Reverse items are 3, 5, 8, 9, 10. The possible total score obtained from the scale ranges between 0-40. The higher score indicates the higher self-esteem.

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Way of Coping Questionnaire (Folkman and Lazarus, 1978)

Way of coping questionnaire was developed by Folkman and Lazarus, 1978. The ways of coping questionnaire is designed to identify the thoughts and actions an individual’s has used to cope with a specific stressful encounter. It measures coping processes, not coping disposition or styles. To assess coping styles with the instrument, the investigator would need to assess an individual’s coping processes in a range of stressful encounters, then evaluate consistencies in those processes across encounters. Ways of coping is likert type 4 point scale. In scale o indicates “does not apply/not used”, 1 indicates “used somewhat”, 2 indicates “used quite a bit”, and 3 indicates “used a great deal”. Inter-correlation of all domains shown relatively significant. Factor loading of the scale range from 0.25 to 0.79.

Problem Solving Inventory (Heppner and Petersen, 1982)

PSI was developed by Heppner and Petersen (1982) to measure people’s perceptions of their personal problem solving behaviours and attitudes. The PSI is composed of thirty*two 6- point Likert-type items, ranging from strongly agree (1) to strongly disagree (6). Lower scores indicate assessment of oneself as a relatively effective problem solver, whereas higher scores indicate assessment of oneself as a relatively ineffective problem solver. The PSI is a self-rating questionnaire, and this information should not be considered synonymous with actual problem-solving skills. Reliability estimates revealed that the constructs were internally consistent ( .72 to .90) and stable over time (.83 to .89 ) (Heppner & Petersen, 1982). In Problem Solving Inventory high score suggests poor problem solving ability.

STATISTICAL ANALYSIS

For the statistical analysis SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) 20.0 version was used. Frequencies, Chi Squared test, Pearson Correlation were used in the current study.

RESULTS

Table 1

Description of age and family size of male and female school going adolescents

Variables Male Female Total

(N = 100) (N = 100) (N = 200)

Age 14.66 + 1.13 14.27 + 0.78 14.46 + 0.99

Family Size 7.01 + 3.48 7.32 + 3.13 7.16 + 3.30

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Table 1 gives descriptive information about the mean age and family size of male and female respondents. The mean age of the male respondent was 14.66 but the mean age of female respondents was 14.27 and in total the mean age of all respondents was 14.46. A result shows that in family size of male respondents, female respondents and total study respondents an average of 7 persons resides in family.

Table 2

Comparison of Socio-Demographic Characteristics of male and female school going adolescents

Variables Level Male Female  2 df P (N = 100) (N = 100)

Family Type Nuclear 50 (50.0%) 39 (39.0%) 2.450 1 .118

Joint 50 (50.0%) 61 (61.0%)

Domicile Rural 74 (74.0%) 72 (72.0%) .101 1 .750

Urban 26 (26.0%) 28 (28.0%)

Ethnicity Tribal 32 (32.0%) 44 (44.0%) 3.056 1 .080

Non- Tribal 68 (68.0%) 56 (56.0%)

Religion Hindu 31 (31.0%) 28 (28.0%) 6.032 3 .110

Muslim 26 (26.0%) 21 (21.0%)

Christian 23 (23.0%) 16 (16.0%)

Others 20 (20.0%) 35 (35.0%)

The result shows that majority of (50%) respondents in male group belongs to nuclear and joint family type but in female group majority of (61%) respondents belongs to joint family type and rest (39%) belongs to nuclear family type. Study finding shows that majority of male (74%) and female (72%) respondents belong to rural background and rest (26%) male respondents and (28%) female respondents belongs to urban background. Present study finding reveals that male respondents most of (68%) belongs to non-tribal ethnicity and (32%) belongs to tribal ethnicity but in female respondents majority of (56%) hails from non- tribal ethnicity and rest (44%) belongs to tribal ethnicity. Table shows that in male respondents majority of (31%) belongs to Hindu religion, (26%) belongs to Muslim religion, (23%) belongs to Christian religion and (20%) belongs to other religion, but on the other hand in female study respondents most (35%) respondents belongs to others religion, (28%) respondents belongs to Hindu religion, (21%) respondents belongs to Muslim religion and (16%) respondents belongs to Christian religion. Result shows no statistically significant difference was found between

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both the study groups.

Table 3

Inter-correlation matrix showing correlation among various domains of Perceived stress, Self-esteem, Way of Coping and Problem Solving Ability along with socio-

demographic variables among school going adolescents

Variables Age Family Perceived Self Way of Problem Members Stress Esteem Coping Solving

Ability

Age 1 -.092 -.005 .103 .023 .023

Family Members 1 -.066 .063 .078 -.027

Perceived Stress 1 -.223** .184** .287**

Self Esteem 1 .008 -.223**

Way of Coping 1 -.185**

Problem Solving Ability 1

** Correlation was significant at the 0.01 level.

In the present study positive high correlation was found between perceived stress and way of coping at 0.01 level which suggests that whenever stress increased among respondents their ways of coping also increased, similarly in perceived stress and problem solving ability also positive high correlation was found at 0.01 level which shows that when stress increased among respondents their problem solving ability decreased.

DISCUSSION

Two hundred adolescents (100 male school going adolescents and 100 female school going adolescents) were focus of the present study and the aim was to see the relationship among school going adolescent in terms of perceived stress, self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability. The samples were collected from class 9th

and 10th students of St. Joseph’s Boys High School and Anita Girls High School, Kanke, Ranchi. The samples of both groups were matched with the variables like age, family size, family type, domicile, ethnicity, religion.

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The analysis revealed positive high correlation was found between perceived stress and way of coping at 0.01 level which suggests that whenever stress increased among respondents their ways of coping also increased, similarly in perceived stress and problem solving ability also positive high correlation was found at 0.01 level which shows that when stress increased among respondents their problem solving ability decreased. Present study are in agreement with the study conducted by Jennifer (2011) found that adolescents face the challenges of stress nearly every day and often report that school, pressure to have good grades, money, relationships, parents, being a teen parent, jobs, sex, STD’s/AIDS, violence and fighting. Some teens choose unhealthy ways of coping to deal with stress and may smoke or use drugs, self-harm, become depressed, or give up on life altogether.

Another similar finding study conducted by Frydenburg et al. (2004) explored interventions for coping with pressures and stressors to help teach adolescents how to respond to stress later in life. Results indicated two specific ways to better adapt to stress by either reducing the demands of adolescents or increasing the number of coping resources. Students who learn to identify stressors and cope effectively report having less stress. Family members and educators may wish to work together to help teens with their 15 levels of stress and consider balance in academics, personal and social activities and community involvement that reduce environmental factors contributing to stress. Similarly in perceived stress and problem solving ability also positive high correlation was found at 0.01 level, which shows that when stress increased among respondents their problem solving ability decreased.

However, the perceived stress showed significant negative correlation with self- esteem at 0.01 level. Finding suggests that whenever the perceived stress increased among respondents their self-esteem got decreased. Similarly self esteem and problem solving ability as well as way of coping and problem solving ability showed significant negative correlation at 0.01 level it suggest that when self-esteem and way of coping increased among respondents their problem solving ability also increased. Present study are in agreement with the study conducted by Johnson et al. (1982) his research findings indicate the debilitating effect of stressful transitions and crises may have an equally deleterious impact in adolescent life, well-being and self esteem at the last decade. As a common claim in this stress, it was indicated that social support and self esteem becomes particularly critical when the individual feels threatened or overwhelmed.

Similarly in self esteem and problem solving ability statistically significant negative correlation was found at 0.01 level similarly in way of coping and problem solving ability showed significant negative correlation at 0.01 level. So according to study finding it means that when self-esteem and way of coping increased among respondents

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their problem solving ability also increased. Present study is in agreement with the study conducted by Europa (2002) on the problems and coping strategies of marginalized street children and adolescents. The study revealed that these children and adolescents were having poor coping strategies and low self esteem with feelings of insecurity.

Another study conducted by Gayle et al. (2005) among 37 highly stressed children with stress affected and highly stressed with stress coped children. The study showed that stress coped children to be more adjusted and competent. They had higher self esteem more positive coping strategies and problem solving skills than stress affected children.

LIMITATIONS

Being a time bound study only a small sample could be taken and hence the generalization of the result remains doubtful. If parents of the students would have also been included as respondents along with teacher, it would have been a more accurate study to identify behavioral problems in children. Students of class XIth and XIIth should have been included to obtain good and robust results.

CONCLUSION

Present study was conducted to see the relationship among school going adolescent in terms of perceived stress, self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability. The study findings highlights significant positive and negative correlation also found between perceived stress, self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability among school going adolescents.

With the help of present study findings adolescents can recognize what is causing them stress and learn how to manage their stress in a healthy and productive manner. Students need to know about the positive ways to cope with the stressors in their lives, and being able to manage the stress, increase self-esteem and improve problem solving ability, it may not only benefit the students, but may also help to enhance their academic performance too. Thus the findings of the present study will help adolescents as how to respond with stress, increase self-esteem and coping strategy as well as how to make better problem solving ability in their future life.

FUTURE DIRECTION AND IMPLICATIONS

Based on present study findings it is very clear that there are significant correlations found among school going adolescents in terms of stress, self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability. With these findings it would be interesting to see the other contributing psycho-social factors such as parenting style, academic achievement, emotional intelligence, etc. and its impact on perceived stress, self-esteem, way of

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coping and problem solving ability. Based on the present study finding psycho-social intervention program can be developed to enhance the self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability of the school going adolescents and its efficacy and feasibility can be assessed. Based on the present study finding intervention package can be developed for school going adolescents based on gender. Based on the present study more schools and classes would be covered for future studies. Present study findings suggest that there is elusive need to impart life skill techniques to the school going adolescents soon after they enter in high academics. These skills will help them to handle various life stressors and this will also facilitate them to perform well in their academics. Present study findings would help in implementing the school mental health program to tackle the problem related to stress, self-esteem, way of coping and problem solving ability among school going adolescents.

REFERENCES

Cohen, S., and Williamson, G. (1988). Perceived stress in a probability sample of the United States. The Social Psychology of Health: Claremont Symposium on Applied Social Psychology Newbury Park, 31- 67.

Europa, E. (2002). Street Children En/Youth achiev Doc/Studies/the Saloniki-PDF.

Folkman, S., and Lazarus, R. S. (1978). An analsyis of coping in a middle-aged community sample. Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 21(3), 219-239.

Frydenberg, E., and Lewis, R. (1991). Adolescent coping: The different ways in which boys and girls cope. Journal of Adolescence, 14, 119-133.

Frydenberg, E., Lewis, R., Bugalski, K., Cotta, A., McCarthy, C., Luscombe-Smith, N., and Poole, C. (2004). Prevention is better than cure: Coping skills for adolescents at school. Educational Psychology in Practice, 20(2), 117-134.

Gayle, R., Parker E. L., and Cowen, W. C. (2005). University of Rochester, 575 Mt. Hope A Venu, 1460 Rochester, New York.

Gilligan, C. (1988). In a different voice. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Heppner, P. P., and Peterson, C. H. (1982). The development and implications of a personal problem- solving inventory. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 30, 537-545.

Jennifer, K. L. (2011). Recognizing and Managing Stress: Coping Strategies for Adolescents. Graduate Degree/ Major: MS School Counseling, American Psychological Association, 6.

Johnson, J. (1982). Life events as stressors in childhood and adolescence. In Lahey, B. and Kazdin, A. (eds.), Advances in Clinical Child Psychology, 2.

Kohlberg, L. (1978). Revisions in the theory and practice of moral development. New Directions for

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ABOUT THE AUTHORS

Prashant Srivastava, Psychiatric Social Worker —Dept. of Pediatrics, Child Development Centre, Maulana Azad Medical College and Associated Lok Nayak Hospital and Ph.D. Scholar, Dept. of Social Work, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi.

Manisha Kiran, Associate Professor —Dept. of Psychiatric Social Work, Ranchi Institute of Neuro- Psychiatry and Allied Sciences, Kanke, Ranchi-834 006.

Child Development, 2, 83–88.

National Research Council. (2002). Community Programs to Promote Youth Development. National Academies Press: Washington, DC.

Rew, L. (2005). Adolescent health a multidisciplinary approach to theory, research, and intervention. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

Rosenberg, M. (1965). Society and the Adolescent Self-image. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press.

Wilburn, V.R., and Smith, D. E. (2005). Stress, self esteem and suicidal ideation in late adolescents. Adolescence, 40(157), 33-43.

Copyright of Journal of Psychosocial Research is the property of Prints Publications Pvt. Ltd. and its content may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder’s express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.

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Initial Call homework helpand

Initial Call homework helpand

Prior to beginning work on this discussion, please read Chapters 3, 4, and 17 in DSM-5 Made Easy: The Clinician’s Guide to Diagnosis; Case 20 from Case Studies in Abnormal Psychology; and Chapter 1 in Psychopathology: History, Diagnosis, and Empirical Foundations. It is recommended that you read Chapter 1 in Turning Points in Dynamic Psychotherapy: Initial Assessment, Boundaries, Money, Disruptions and Suicidal Crises.

For this discussion, you will choose a case study included in Case Studies in Abnormal Psychology.

In your initial post, you will take on the persona of the patient from the case study you have chosen in order to create an initial call to a mental health professional from the patient’s point of view. In order to create your initial call, evaluate the symptoms and presenting problems from the case study, and then determine how the patient would approach the first call.

Create a document that includes a transcript of a call from the patient’s point of view based on the information in the case study including basic personal information and reasons for seeking out psychotherapy. The call may be no more than 5 minutes in length. Once you have created your transcript you will create a screencast recording of the transcript using the patient’s voice. Based on the information from the case study, consider the following questions as you create your recording:

· What would the patient say?

· What tone of voice might he or she use?

· How fast would the patient speak?

· Would the message be understandable (e.g., would it be muffled, circumstantial, tangential, rambling, mumbled, pressured, etc.)?

You may use any screencasting software you choose. Quick-Start Guides are available Screencast-O-Matic (Links to an external site.)Links to an external site. for your convenience. Once you have created your screencast, include the link and the name of the case study you chose in your initial post and attach your transcript document prior to submitting it.

Resources:

Gorenstein, E., & Comer, J. (2015). Case studies in abnormal psychology (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Worth Publishers. ISBN: 9780716772736

Morrison, J. (2014). DSM-5 made easy: The clinician’s guide to diagnosis. New York, NY: The Guilford Press.

Craighead, W. E., Miklowitz, D. J., & Craighead, L. W. (2013). Psychopathology: History, diagnosis, and empirical foundations (2nd ed.). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com

Akhtar, S. (2009). Turning points in dynamic psychotherapy: Initial assessment, boundaries, money, disruptions and suicidal crises. London, England: Karnac Books. Retrieved from http://www.ebrary.com

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“Tim Gunn And A Leaky Shower: Welcome To My Life Little Guy

January 31, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

“Tim Gunn And A Leaky Shower: Welcome To My Life Little Guy

Writing A Response To Maggie Downs, “Tim Gunn And A Leaky Shower: Welcome To My Life Little Guy”, I Selected For Your Week 2 Outline- Critical Response Essay (Rough Draft)

Running head: WELCOME TO MY LIFE 1

WELCOME TO MY LIFE 4

Tim Gunn and a leaky shower: Welcome to my life, little guy

Yesenia Cruz

ENG 121: English Composition I

Instructor: Kristin Sanders

February 25, 2019

Tim Gunn and a leaky shower: Welcome to my life, little guy

First time mothers always find it challenging when motherhood sets in with the birth of their first-born babies. mothers on most times fail to get quality sleep and when other problems creep in the mother is left at a difficult position especially when the father has to go to work in order to cater for the family. “Tim Gunn and a leaky shower: Welcome to my life, little guy,” from the Washington Post is the article I chose to look in to. The article is based on a new mother who experiences a lot of the struggles that new mothers go through.

Maggie in her article,” Tim Gunn and a leaky shower: Welcome to my life, little guy,” provides a good way to learn about how mothers face a difficult task having to recover from giving birth and at the same time taking care of their newly born children. In order to escape from the tiring responsibilities of motherhood, mothers take up a form of escapism which in the case of Maggie is watching old episodes of Project Runaway.

· Tim Gunn and a leaky shower: Welcome to my life, little guy teaches readers the need for mothers to find a way to rest from the perils of new parenting.

a. Maggie starts watching Project runaway as a way of escaping from all the noise and stressors within the house.

b. Maggie experienced a lot of noise coming from the construction of the house and at the same time from her baby crying.

c. “I turned up an old episode of “Project Runaway” and jacked up the volume to drone out the crying and hammering,” which shows how much stress of an environment Maggie and her child went through and the need to escape from all that.

d. Maggie faced challenges with the noise in the house due to the construction, the hot weather and an aging air conditioner that offered little help and pain coming from the unplanned caesarean section.

a. Like Maggie, I have seen my aunt go through the same first time mother problems and how she has coped with all the problems to become a good mother.

b. My aunt has developed a habit of watching a rerun of NCIS Los Angeles as a way of coping with the motherly responsibilities and resting.

c. My aunt faced challenges when the kitchen had to be remodeled in order to offer more space for more people when she hosts guests. She had to cope with the noise from the walls being smashed and drilling of holes throughout the construction.

d. Watching a rerun of a good series helps mothers to gain some good relaxation and strength to look out after their children throughout the day. The mothers will be refreshed, and they will be happy to enjoy the little free time they have to themselves.

· conclusion

a. ” Tim Gunn and a leaky shower: Welcome to my life, little guy,” provides a good way to learn about how mothers face a difficult task having to recover from giving birth and at the same time taking care of their newly born children.

b. Mothers require some form of escapism and a good way would be to binge watch on a good series. Mothers could face a stressful environment with the new baby crying and other forms of disturbances and it’s up to them take care of themselves.

c. As a reader what ways would you manage the stressful environment that would come with having a new baby and do your methods ensure that you have the proper relaxation before coming back to motherly responsibilities?

Reference

http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/ehost/detail/detail?vid=0&sid=b68da640-3219-44fc-b8eb-691fe94057b1%40sdc-v-sessmgr04&bdata=JkF1dGhUeXBlPWlwLGNwaWQmY3VzdGlkPXM4ODU2ODk3JnNpdGU9ZWhvc3QtbGl2ZQ%3d%3d#AN=wapo.8ffe6f78-9509-11e4-927a-4fa2638cd1b0&db=n5h

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Below Are The Questions Based On The Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Video.

January 31, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Below Are The Questions Based On The Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Video.

~ Students~

Below are the questions based on the

Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Video.

Please answer all of them.

(You may wish to print out these questions for quick reference for when you go to write your paper)

Students: please read all of the following questions. Think about what is being asked in each question. Then formulate in your mind what your answers to those questions would be.

ER/SR Evaluate the significance of how Elliott used this exercise to teach the meaning of brotherhood and moral/ethical reasoning for overcoming stereotypes and relating to people who are different.

CT/TR Discuss your overall reaction to “A Class Divided.” Respond to this thinking routine:

Before viewing “A Class Divided” I Used to Think . . .

After viewing “But Now I think . . . “

This change of mind is because? . . .

SD Have you ever personally experienced discrimination? If so, what were the circumstances? How did you cope with stress?

SR If not, what will you do in the future when you see or experience discrimination in action?

ER/SR Notice about how quickly the children fell into their assigned roles. What does this say about the ease of learning to become prejudice?

CT/ER Participants in this exercise are only exposed to discrimination for a relatively short amount of time. Relate their attitudes and behavior after just a short amount of time to that of minority group members in our society who are exposed to a lifetime of discrimination.

CT/ER Select a marginalized, disenfranchised or minority group of people and identify the parallels between the comments and actions made by the brown eyed children on the first day and the comments and actions of the marginalized, disenfranchised or minority group you selected.

~ Students~

Below are the questions based on the

Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Video.

Please answer all of them.

(You may wish to print out these questions for quick reference for when you go to write your paper)

Students: please read all of the following questions. Think about what is being asked in each question. Then formulate in your mind what your answers to those questions would be.

ER/SR Evaluate the significance of how Elliott used this exercise to teach the meaning of brotherhood and moral/ethical reasoning for overcoming stereotypes and relating to people who are different.

CT/TR Discuss your overall reaction to “A Class Divided.” Respond to this thinking routine:

Before viewing “A Class Divided” I Used to Think . . .

After viewing “But Now I think . . . “

This change of mind is because? . . .

SD Have you ever personally experienced discrimination? If so, what were the circumstances? How did you cope with stress?

SR If not, what will you do in the future when you see or experience discrimination in action?

ER/SR Notice about how quickly the children fell into their assigned roles. What does this say about the ease of learning to become prejudice?

Jane Elliot in her famous exercise that people practice based on the eye colour and skin colour to treat others differently. She wanted to prove that how difficult it would be for someone to be in a place where everyone ill-treat them and bully them in order to show the world that racism hurts. It was a time that blue eyed people were promoting that they were the superior race both physically and intellectually but she wanted to prove otherwise. So she chose people and made them sit according to their eye colour such as blue, brown. She deliberately allowed others to bully the blue eyed people and made them cry and frustrated. She did it to make the world understand how hard it is to be racially abused and bullied.

Today this video or the exercise itself has a lot of implications as the world has become a village where people from different races and ethnicities live together in harmony. We also witness occasional disturbances in terms of racism but there is also an institutionalized racism that is practised by the white patriots who run the governments in some countries. Equality is the only word that should govern not just humanity but the entire earth and its creations.

1,414 answers

1. Th actions from an ethical perspective were not fair as they would impact psyche of children who were at a young an impressionable age, such habits and actions and their consequent affects are generally internalized for the long run.

2. One of the main privileges that was taken away was going an drinking from the water fountain, and mingling with the apparent superior crowd. They were asked to sit further behind in the classroom setting than in the front.

3. Blue eyed children were given all those privileges that the brown eyes children were denied of, and they ere given added benefits of extra food, extra time for recess and more play time.

4. the Blue eyed pupils boasted regarding their marks and grades with respect to the assessments that were given to them on which they faired better and hence showed their apparent intellectual superiority.

5. Prejudice is not based on evidence, it is created on the basis of an isolated factor, which is sadly generalized and superimposed upon an entire population of the given sect.

6. One of the most common prejudice can be seen amongst the various religious groups, especially against those of the islamic faith.

7. It showed them the reason for Martin Luther Kings sad demise and the reason for his initial struggle.

8. Pupils though that prejudices happens if someone comes along and tells them they have more rights than someones due to the virtue of a certain quality.

9. Prejudice can be created easily, as it spreads like wildfire and on the basis of word of mouth, which goes on to be ingrained in to people minds especially if they are not at a disposition. But, to break a prejudice, paradoxically, requires empirical observation and encounters which is seldom possible, and people are generally satisfied with the social pedestal they have been bestowed which gives them a sense of entitlement they’d rather not let go. It is easier to be ignorant.

10. More cultural programs are required in order to subject people through various cultures and break certain stereotypes that have been formulated by false attributions.Cultures should be taught about.

11. We can try not to be dogmatic in our views regarding other cultures and try to engage in critical thinking in order to break through the glass cielling affect that we create on the basis of ‘facts’ that are anything but facts.

The experiment conducted is somewhere in retro period. We can see that the teacher has got considerable influence on children. Initially she says that Blue eyed children are better and they would be in favour, this makes brown eyed children go very uneasy and later she says that brown eyed children are better than blue eyed. This experiment was conducted to tell children that colour of people face, eyes etc does not makes any difference in their rights.

The experiment was conducted at the right age where kids are 8-9 year old and they start knowing the world and hence it is well established in their minds. The result was good where kids got to know the impact of differentiation.

Today apart from teacher, management of school, parents also play a role in children’s education. And hence conducting such an experiment would have caused problem to teacher. Moreover there is not much differentiation like earlier days. People are not discriminated based on their colour. Had the teacher would have conducted such an experiment today, then kids would have gone home complaining to their parents. And the parents would have come running to school management, principal as such differentiation is taking place. This would risked teacher’s job.

Today there are strict laws about discrimination, anybody seeing or caught in discrimination such as gender, race, religion etc are fined heavily be it company, any school etc.

Jane Elliot’s brown eye/blue eye: class division video was interesting to watch. Jane was a teacher in the 60’s who chose to do a lesson on discrimination a little different than textbook style. She divided the class into brown eyes vs blue eyed and let one group be dominate of the other, each for a day. When starting this experiment, I do not believe that Jane thought she classroom of third graders when turn against one another so quickly. While watching this video I watched these children discriminate against one another only because they were told they were dominate because of eye color. Jane watched these children bully one another, she watched how their social status affected their school work and how this dominance changed each child into completely different people. Jane was just as shocked as I was when seeing the children segregate themselves and choose to belittle the colored eyed people that were less than that day. As scary as it seems, I believe that if this was done again today, in a classroom full of third graders, the results would still be the same. Discrimination is still alive and well, people still believe they are better than others based on skin color, economic status, gender or sexual orientation. People still hold these beliefs that these certain values and ways of life have a right and wrong choice, if we are not all the same then one must be dominant. Jane used this lesson to show her children the importance of acceptance and what discrimination is exactly.

This experiment I believe was great for the kids at the time, they built acceptance and self-awareness. At the end of the video the children, who were now adults, got to talk about how that video changed their views on racism and discrimination. The classmates grew up and understood that although someone is different, in whatever way, they should never discriminate against this person. The experiment showed them what is was like to be on both ends of discrimination, showing these children what it feels like to be segregated and taunted. As a future counselor and mother, I hope to work against discrimination and prejudice; although one cannot stop it, I an at least put my foot down when discrimination or prejudice occurs.

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Psychology homework help

January 31, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Psychology homework help

Week Four Homework Exercise

PSYCH/610 Version 2

Week Four Homework Exercise

Answer the following questions, covering material from Ch 8–10 of Methods in Behavioral Research:

1. What is a confounding variable and why do researchers try to eliminate confounding variables? Provide two examples of confounding variables.

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of posttest only design and pretest-posttest design?

3. What is meant by sensitivity of a dependent variable?

4. What are the differences between an independent groups design and a repeated measures design?

5. How does an experimenter’s expectations and participant expectations affect outcomes?

6. Provide an example of a factorial design. What are the key features of a factorial design? What are the advantages of a factorial design?

7. Describe at least four different dependent variables.

8. What are some ways researchers can manipulate independent variables?

9. What is the difference between main effects and interactions?

10. How do moderator variables impact results? Provide an example.

11. A researcher is interested in studying the effects of story endings on preference ratings. He randomly assigns participants into two groups: predictable ending or surprise ending. He instructs them to read the story and provide preference ratings. The experimenter’s variation of story endings is a __________ (straightforward or staged) manipulation.

12. A researcher was interested in investigating the vocabulary skills of 6th graders in a program for gifted students. She gave a group of participants a test of vocabulary that was aimed at the 7th-grade level. She quickly discovered that there was limited variability in the scores because nearly all the students answered 90% or more of the questions correctly. This outcome is called a _______ effect.

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Parenting Dynamics – The Family Crucible – Brice Family homework help

January 31, 2024/in Assignment Help, Nursing Exam Help /by Daniel Jennings

Parenting Dynamics – The Family Crucible – Brice Family homework help

Brice Family – Systems Paper

Claudia Rangel

Brice Family – Systems Paper

MFCC 561

Mrs. Cindy Christiansen

March 7, 2018

Brice Family

This paper is about the Brice family and how the first and second therapy sessions went. I will talk about what systems approach to therapy was used for this family’s difficulties, and I will also include how Napier and Whitaker conceptualized the family’s struggles. I will talk about what specific interventions they used to support their systemic understanding of this family. I will also describe how this differs from an individual understanding, and

First Session

The Brice family consist of five members. The mother Carolyn and angry mother, the father David a VIP lawyer, they also have a teenage daughter Claudia and enraged teenager, Laura is the youngest who is six-years old and younger son Don who is 11 and is the pacemaker. The family was referred to seek therapy by a psychiatrist who Claudia had been seen for her own personal problems. As her sessions progressed she felt that her whole family would benefit from joining her in therapy sessions. The entire family was included in the first session and it was a challenge for the therapist to get a clear picture of the family dynamics and the work that the individuals needed through this process. When Don the youngest son did not show up to the session with the family, Whitaker began to question the family’s commitment to the therapeutic process. According to Whitaker (1978, p. 6), “to start the process with one fifth of the family absent would be unfair to Don and I think unfair to you. He’s part of the family, and we need him here if the family as a whole is going to change.”

Mrs. Caroline felt that the main issues was their teenage daughter issues and did not believe that the whole family should be there in therapy. Both the daughter and mother waked in the room angry. The family were so angry that you felt the stressful tension in the therapy room. Mr. David was respectful and mentioned he was happy he was there, but his body posture and language told the therapist he was not comfortable being there. The youngest son Don did not show up for the first session.

Laura the youngest daughter seemed to be in a cheerful mood with high energy. An argument broke out during the sessions between the daughter and mother, The mother seems to think they are in this therapy session to resolve Claudia’s issues that have been affecting the entire family for months now, the mother doesn’t think the family as a unit has a problem. The two therapist in the session agreed that it would not be ideal to start the family session without Don who is the youngest son and did not show up to the session. Carol and David were not happy with this choice and felt the longer they waited for their daughter to get help the worst it would get. Carl the mother explained how important it was to have Don at the first therapy session, she also explained the dynamics of the family if they wanted to be a part of the family’s sessions they had to call and set up a time so that Don who is the youngest son would be included in the next session.

Dave who is the father did not hesitate and made the family next session appointment with the wife’s approval. Carolyn agreed with her husband and towards the end of the session Carl connected with her daughter Laura who is the youngest by engaging her in dialog and asking what she thought about everything that was going on in the family. Carl was able to show the family how her children and husband all have a special place in the sessions, and it is not just about one person but the whole family.

Second Session

As the session continued, Whitaker (1978) explored the family, trying to dig deeper and uncover the structure, and the patterns in the family that needed more attention and were more significant than Claudia’s problems. Some identified patterns include triangulation between Claudia, David, and Carolyn, and coalitions between David and Carolyn against Claudia, Carolyn and Don against David, and David and Claudia against Carolyn (Nichols, 2013, p. 78). The emotional divorce tone was also identified between Carolyn and David with the acknowledgement of the affair with work for David and the affair with the mother for Carolyn (p. 18). Whitaker conceptualized the affairs as a result of a fearfulness of dependency for the couple and the feelings of entrapment related to the old family of origin.

Whitaker and Napier conceptualized the family’s difficult times as a whole problem. They did not see it stem form one family member. They felt the family all had some issues as individuals and as a couple for the parents that were not address when they should have been. Because the issues were set aside they resurfaced and intensified along with Claudia’s changing attitude and miss behavior. This is one of the reasons both parents seem to focus on Claudia and identified her as the main cause of the family’s problems.

When using individual understanding of a family’s problem each family member is seen separate. The family is not taken in as a unit, but instead they work on the individual to be able to create harmony in the family. Each member issue are addressed individually and worked on without the rest of the family having a part. When looked at as individual there is a targeted behavior the individual is seeing as the problem not the family unit as a whole.

Carl used the systemic family approach with the Brice family, both therapist looked at the circular interaction of the family problem, the family role of each family member and how they fit in to contributing to the family dysfunction and made sure the entire family was present for the first intervention. Both therapist looked for positive contributions to the social organization of the family that they could look back on to start working with the family as one unit and not focus on one member of the family to be the problem. One of the interventions came by the simple sitting arrangement the family had. The family in the beginning of the session unconsciously sat according to the family structure and how they felt it was. By having the therapist change the seating arrangements was a symbolic change and shift in the family structure to what it should be.

Specific Systemic Interventions

Employing the systemic approach, Napier and Whitaker (1978) determine specific interventions designed to engage the entire Brice family in the process of change. Using the experiential premise that the root cause of family problems is emotional expression, both therapists engage the family in opportunities for emotional experiences (Nichols, 2013, p. 145). This is evidenced in the first session when Whitaker stated to Laura, “What do you think about all this crazy stuff?” (p. 11). The emotional expression opportunities continued with Whitaker pursuing emotional responses from all family members in attempt to gauge the family temperature.

Whitaker (1981) also denoted “There is no such thing as marriage, only two scapegoats sent out by their families to perpetuate themselves” (as cited in Nichols, 2013, p. 147). Accommodating this theoretical premise, Whitaker engaged in interventions designed to reveal the parental subsystem struggles as well as the dysfunctions in the marriage propagated onto the children. This is exemplified when the children identify the triangles in the family or the teams each member is a part of (Napier & Whitaker, 1978, p. 19).

Conclusion

In conclusion, Whitaker and Napier (1978) provide insight into this fragmented family system. Using the systemic approach, they conceptualize the family’s difficulties and employ experiential interventions in relation to their systemic understanding. The application of theoretical principles to the family as a whole sustains the family system and eliminates the need for one person to be responsible for the whole unit.

References

Baines, J. (2012). Theoretical modalities and the Brice family. Unpublished Manuscript, NV: University of Phoenix.

Napier, A. Y., & Whitaker, C. A. (1978). The family crucible: The intense experience of family therapy. New York, NY: Harper & Row.

Nichols, M. (2013). Family therapy concepts and methods (10th Ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.

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Psych 635 Ethics In Condiditoning Research

January 31, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Psych 635 Ethics In Condiditoning Research

Running Head: ETHICS IN CONDITIONING RESEARCH 1

ETHICS IN CONDITIONING RESEARCH 6

Ethics In Conditioning Research

Amber Grey, Mary Oliver, Vanessa Rodriguez, & Debra Saunders

PSYCH / 635

Ms. Chelsea Hansen

February 2, 2015

Ethics in Conditioning Research

Research and experimentation has changed tremendously over the decades. Earlier research and experiments had little to no regard for human safety or ethics. The American Psychological Association (APA) created ethical guidelines that now govern all professionals in the psychology field. Ivan Pavlov is known for his work in classical conditioning is most famous for his work salivating dogs. However, Pavlov also performed the same experiments with children using some of the same methods. In one of Pavlov’s experiment shown from Film Media Group (2010), Pavlov attached an instrument to the child’s arm and a tube above his mouth that dispense cookies when a lever was pressed. When the level was pressed causing pressure to the child’s arm, a cookie was released out of the tube directly into the child’s mouth. Over time whenever the lever was pressed the child would automatically start chewing whether there was a cookie present or not. This research proposal is designed to recreate the experiment that Pavlov did with children that were unethical by today’s standards.

Problem

The American Psychological Association (APA) has created and place ethical guidelines that are for all professionals in the psychology field to follow that not only protect the professionals but also the individuals who participate in the experiments. Pavlov’s Experiment with the children has shown some ethical violations that violated the children’s rights according to the APA guidelines in place today. One of the Ethical Violations in Ivan Pavlov’s Experiment was the Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence (APA, 2015). This ethical principle states that the psychologist seeks to have safeguards for the welfare, rights and safety of those who interact professionally and those who are participating in the experiment including animals. Pavlov’s research experiment did not take the children’s safety, well-being and rights as a human being into consideration on how these children would be affected by the experiment. Pavlov had little regards to the human safety which was why Pavlov’s experiment violated the ethical guideline.

Recommendation

The way in which Ivan Pavlov performed his experiments on children in today’s ethical standards would be considered harsh, cruel, and inhumane. Children and dogs were treated unfairly and often times unnecessary surgical procedures were performed in the experiments. Ethically the experiments would not be permitted in society today because of the APA standards and guidelines that must be followed. Ethically by today’s standards of appropriateness Pavlov’s experiments on children can be recreated. The experiments would need to be modified to protect the physical welfare and psychological well-being of the participants. Pavlov believed that unlike animals, humans could learn conditioned responses more rapidly (Schunk, 2012).

The first recommendation to help with the experiment for Pavlov’s experiment with children would be to give the child a pat on the arm for a reflex, if the child response he or she would receive a treat. This would take the place of pressure to the arm, which may cause harm to the child. The second recommendation is for the researcher to have the child choose a good choice or bad choice behavior; if the child chooses the good choice he or she receives a treat, if the child chooses the bad choice behavior he or she does not receive the treat. This experiment does not reflect harm to the child in any way, but does teach the child the difference between good and bad choices. When the experiment is repeated the child learns to make good choices for the reward. The third recommendation is verbal praise and verbal prompts. Using the two together children can have a positive response to the request of the researcher. When the researcher gives the verbal prompt and the child response appropriately, the researcher responds with verbal praise. Instead of using food for rewards the researcher can use verbal praise to help the child with positive reinforcements. The action should be repeated to help the child remember what he or she is supposed to do and when. It is unclear if Pavlov received informed consent to do invasive procedures to children in his experiments. When conducting research on child under the age of 18, it is important to obtain verbal or written consent from a parent or legal guardian before carrying out any type of experiment (American Psychological Association, 2015). If consent is not obtained from the parent or guardian it is a violation of Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility. Ethical standards must be met when working in the field of research in relation to animals and humans (American Psychological Association, 2015).

Conclusion

This research proposal is designed to recreate the experiment performed by Ivan Pavlov that involved children. Pavlov’s treatment of the children was unethical by today’s standards. Pavlov is famous for his experiments in classical conditioning involving salivating dogs. Pavlov also performed the same experiments with children using similar methods to those used on the dogs. Pavlov’s experiment on a child is shown in a film from the Film Media Group (2010). The use of invasive surgery techniques has far-reaching implications involving the physical and psychological well-being of the subjects and participants for the remainder of their lives. Research and experimentation have changed greatly since Pavlov conducted his experiments. Pavlov’s research and experiments violated many of the ethical guidelines put in place to protect research participants according to the American Psychological Association (APA). There is a high probability that the surgically implanted tubes caused physical harm to the children and the dogs.

Pavlov’s experiments on children violated Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence, which states psychologists seek to safeguard the welfare and rights of those with whom they work with professionally to take care to do them no harm. This principle protects the welfare and well-being of person’s and animals who are research subjects. This amounts to a violation of ethical principles and undermines the children’s rights to privacy and confidentiality. The effects of the experiments likely caused psychological damage to the subjects and participants. There are methods that could be used to produce the same results, without violating the child’s ethical rights, such as a pat on the arm, a reward for a good choice, or verbal praises or prompts, using praise as a reward instead of a cookie. It is also important to remember to obtain parental consent when working with subjects under the age of 18; otherwise it is a violation of Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility. Ethical standards must be met when working in the field of research with children and animals.

Reference

American Psychological Association, (2015). Ethical Principles of Psychologist and Code of

Conduct, Including 2010 Amendments. http://www.apa.org

Films Media Group (2010). Pavlov’s experiments on children. From Title: Into the Mind: Mind

Control. Retrieved from UOP Electronic Reading

Films Media Group (2010). Pavlov’s experiments on dogs. From Title: Into the Mind: Mind

Control. Retrieved from UOP Electronic Reading

Nagy, T. F. (2011). The general ethical principles of psychologists. In Essential ethics for

Psychologists: A primer for understanding and mastering core issues, 46-93.

Schunk, E. (2012). Learning theories: An educational perspective (6th ed). Boston, MA: Pearson Education

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Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory assignment help

January 31, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory assignment help

The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in Counseling

Drawing on Techniques from Various Approaches

Techniques of Therapy

Applications of the Approaches

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Limitations in Multicultural Counseling

Contributions of the Approaches

Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

The Basic Philosophies

Key Concepts

Goals of Therapy

The Therapeutic Relationship

Limitations of the Approaches

The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in Counseling

Drawing on Techniques from Various Approaches

Techniques of Therapy

Psychoanalytic therapy	The key techniques are interpretation, dream analysis, free association, analysis of resistance, analysis of transference, and countertransference. Techniques are designed to help clients gain access to their unconscious conflicts, which leads to insight and eventual assimilation of new material by the ego.
Adlerian therapy	Adlerians pay more attention to the subjective experiences of clients than to using techniques. Some techniques include gathering life-history data (family constellation, early recollections, personal priorities), sharing interpretations with clients, offering encouragement, and assisting clients in searching for new possibilities.
Existential therapy	Few techniques flow from this approach because it stresses understanding first and technique second. The therapist can borrow techniques from other approaches and incorporate them in an existential framework. Diagnosis, testing, and external measurements are not deemed important. Issues addressed are freedom and responsibility, isolation and relationships, meaning and meaninglessness, living and dying.
Person-centered therapy	This approach uses few techniques but stresses the attitudes of the therapist and a “way of being.” Therapists strive for active listening, reflection of feelings, clarification, “being there” for the client, and focusing on the moment-to-moment experiencing of the client. This model does not include diagnostic testing, interpretation, taking a case history, or questioning or probing for information.
Gestalt therapy	A wide range of experiments are designed to intensify experiencing and to integrate conflicting feelings. Experiments are co-created by therapist and client through an I/Thou dialogue. Therapists have latitude to creatively invent their own experiments. Formal diagnosis and testing are not a required part of therapy.
Behavior therapy	The main techniques are reinforcement, shaping, modeling, systematic desensitization, relaxation methods, flooding, eye movement and desensitization reprocessing, cognitive restructuring, social skills training, self-management programs, mindfulness and acceptance methods, behavioral rehearsal, and coaching. Diagnosis or assessment is done at the outset to determine a treatment plan. Questions concentrate on “what,” “how,” and “when” (but not “why”). Contracts and homework assignments are also typically used.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Therapists use a variety of cognitive, emotive, and behavioral techniques; diverse methods are tailored to suit individual clients. This is an active, directive, time-limited, present-centered, psychoeducational, structured therapy. Some techniques include engaging in Socratic dialogue, collaborative empiricism, debating irrational beliefs, carrying out homework assignments, gathering data on assumptions one has made, keeping a record of activities, forming alternative interpretations, learning new coping skills, changing one’s language and thinking patterns, role playing, imagery, confronting faulty beliefs, self-instructional training, and stress inoculation training.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	This is an active, directive, and didactic therapy. Skillful questioning is a central technique used for the duration of the therapy process. Various techniques may be used to get clients to evaluate what they are presently doing to see if they are willing to change. If clients decide that their present behavior is not effective, they develop a specific plan for change and make a commitment to follow through.
Feminist therapy	Although techniques from traditional approaches are used, feminist practitioners tend to employ consciousness-raising techniques aimed at helping clients recognize the impact of gender-role socialization on their lives. Other techniques frequently used include gender-role analysis and intervention, power analysis and intervention, demystifying therapy, bibliotherapy, journal writing, therapist self-disclosure, assertiveness training, reframing and relabeling, cognitive restructuring, identifying and challenging untested beliefs, role playing, psychodramatic methods, group work, and social action.
Postmodern approaches	In solution-focused therapy the main technique involves change-talk, with emphasis on times in a client’s life when the problem was not a problem. Other techniques include creative use of questioning, the miracle question, and scaling questions, which assist clients in developing alternative stories. In narrative therapy, specific techniques include listening to a client’s problem-saturated story without getting stuck, externalizing and naming the problem, externalizing conversations, and discovering clues to competence. Narrative therapists often write letters to clients and assist them in finding an audience that will support their changes and new stories.
Family systems therapy	A variety of techniques may be used, depending on the particular theoretical orientation of the therapist. Some techniques include genograms, teaching, asking questions, joining the family, tracking sequences, family mapping, reframing, restructuring, enactments, and setting boundaries. Techniques may be experiential, cognitive, or behavioral in nature. Most are designed to bring about change in a short time.

Techniques of Therapy

Applications of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy	Candidates for analytic therapy include professionals who want to become therapists, people who have had intensive therapy and want to go further, and those who are in psychological pain. Analytic therapy is not recommended for self-centered and impulsive individuals or for people with psychotic disorders. Techniques can be applied to individual and group therapy.
Adlerian therapy	Because the approach is based on a growth model, it is applicable to such varied spheres of life as child guidance, parent–child counseling, marital and family therapy, individual counseling with all age groups, correctional and rehabilitation counseling, group counseling, substance abuse programs, and brief counseling. It is ideally suited to preventive care and alleviating a broad range of conditions that interfere with growth.
Existential therapy	This approach is especially suited to people facing a developmental crisis or a transition in life and for those with existential concerns (making choices, dealing with freedom and responsibility, coping with guilt and anxiety, making sense of life, and finding values) or those seeking personal enhancement. The approach can be applied to both individual and group counseling, and to couples and family therapy, crisis intervention, and community mental health work.
Person-centered therapy	Has wide applicability to individual and group counseling. It is especially well suited for the initial phases of crisis intervention work. Its principles have been applied to couples and family therapy, community programs, administration and management, and human relations training. It is a useful approach for teaching, parent–child relations, and for working with groups of people from diverse cultural backgrounds.
Gestalt therapy	Addresses a wide range of problems and populations: crisis intervention, treatment of a range of psychosomatic disorders, couples and family therapy, awareness training of mental health professionals, behavior problems in children, and teaching and learning. It is well suited to both individual and group counseling. The methods are powerful catalysts for opening up feelings and getting clients into contact with their present-centered experience.
Behavior therapy	A pragmatic approach based on empirical validation of results. Enjoys wide applicability to individual, group, couples, and family counseling. Some problems to which the approach is well suited are phobic disorders, depression, trauma, sexual disorders, children’s behavioral disorders, stuttering, and prevention of cardiovascular disease. Beyond clinical practice, its principles are applied in fields such as pediatrics, stress management, behavioral medicine, education, and geriatrics.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Has been widely applied to treatment of depression, anxiety, relationship problems, stress management, skill training, substance abuse, assertion training, eating disorders, panic attacks, performance anxiety, and social phobias. CBT is especially useful for assisting people in modifying their cognitions. Many self-help approaches utilize its principles. CBT can be applied to a wide range of client populations with a variety of specific problems.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	Geared to teaching people ways of using choice theory in everyday living to increase effective behaviors. It has been applied to individual counseling with a wide range of clients, group counseling, working with youthful law offenders, and couples and family therapy. In some instances it is well suited to brief therapy and crisis intervention.
Feminist therapy	Principles and techniques can be applied to a range of therapeutic modalities such as individual therapy, relationship counseling, family therapy, group counseling, and community intervention. The approach can be applied to both women and men with the goal of bringing about empowerment.
Postmodern approaches	Solution-focused therapy is well suited for people with adjustment disorders and for problems of anxiety and depression. Narrative therapy is now being used for a broad range of human difficulties including eating disorders, family distress, depression, and relationship concerns. These approaches can be applied to working with children, adolescents, adults, couples, families, and the community in a wide variety of settings. Both solution-focused and narrative approaches lend themselves to group counseling and to school counseling.
Family systems therapy	Useful for dealing with marital distress, problems of communicating among family members, power struggles, crisis situations in the family, helping individuals attain their potential, and enhancing the overall functioning of the family.

Applications of the Approaches

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Psychoanalytic therapy	Its focus on family dynamics is appropriate for working with many cultural groups. The therapist’s formality appeals to clients who expect professional distance. Notion of ego defense is helpful in understanding inner dynamics and dealing with environmental stresses.
Adlerian therapy	Its focus on social interest, helping others, collectivism, pursuing meaning in life, importance of family, goal orientation, and belonging is congruent with the values of many cultures. Focus on person-in-the-environment allows for cultural factors to be explored.
Existential therapy	Focus is on understanding client’s phenomenological world, including cultural background. This approach leads to empowerment in an oppressive society. Existential therapy can help clients examine their options for change within the context of their cultural realities. The existential approach is particularly suited to counseling diverse clients because of the philosophical foundation that emphasizes the human condition.
Person-centered therapy	Focus is on breaking cultural barriers and facilitating open dialogue among diverse cultural populations. Main strengths are respect for clients’ values, active listening, welcoming of differences, nonjudgmental attitude, understanding, willingness to allow clients to determine what will be explored in sessions, and prizing cultural pluralism.
Gestalt therapy	Its focus on expressing oneself nonverbally is congruent with those cultures that look beyond words for messages. Provides many experiments in working with clients who have cultural injunctions against freely expressing feelings. Can help to overcome language barrier with bilingual clients. Focus on bodily expressions is a subtle way to help clients recognize their conflicts.
Behavior therapy	Focus on behavior, rather than on feelings, is compatible with many cultures. Strengths include a collaborative relationship between counselor and client in working toward mutually agreed-upon goals, continual assessment to determine if the techniques are suited to clients’ unique situations, assisting clients in learning practical skills, an educational focus, and stress on self-management strategies.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Focus is on a collaborative approach that offers clients opportunities to express their areas of concern. The psychoeducational dimensions are often useful in exploring cultural conflicts and teaching new behavior. The emphasis on thinking (as opposed to identifying and expressing feelings) is likely to be acceptable to many clients. The focus on teaching and learning tends to avoid the stigma of mental illness. Clients are likely to value the active and directive stance of the therapist.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	Focus is on clients making their own evaluation of behavior (including how they respond to their culture). Through personal assessment clients can determine the degree to which their needs and wants are being satisfied. They can find a balance between retaining their own ethnic identity and integrating some of the values and practices of the dominant society.
Feminist therapy	Focus is on both individual change and social transformation. A key contribution is that both the women’s movement and the multicultural movement have called attention to the negative impact of discrimination and oppression for both women and men. Emphasizes the influence of expected cultural roles and explores client’s satisfaction with and knowledge of these roles.
Postmodern approaches	Focus is on the social and cultural context of behavior. Stories that are being authored in the therapy office need to be anchored in the social world in which the client lives. Therapists do not make assumptions about people and honor each client’s unique story and cultural background. Therapists take an active role in challenging social and cultural injustices that lead to oppression of certain groups. Therapy becomes a process of liberation from oppressive cultural values and enables clients to become active agents of their destinies.
Family systems therapy	Focus is on the family or community system. Many ethnic and cultural groups place value on the role of the extended family. Many family therapies deal with extended family members and with support systems. Networking is a part of the process, which is congruent with the values of many clients. There is a greater chance for individual change if other family members are supportive. This approach offers ways of working toward the health of the family unit and the welfare of each member.

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Limitations in Multicultural Counseling

Psychoanalytic therapy	Its focus on insight, intrapsychic dynamics, and long-term treatment is often not valued by clients who prefer to learn coping skills for dealing with pressing daily concerns. Internal focus is often in conflict with cultural values that stress an interpersonal and environmental focus.
Adlerian therapy	This approach’s detailed interview about one’s family background can conflict with cultures that have injunctions against disclosing family matters. Some clients may view the counselor as an authority who will provide answers to problems, which conflicts with the egalitarian, person-to person spirit as a way to reduce social distance.
Existential therapy	Values of individuality, freedom, autonomy, and self-realization often conflict with cultural values of collectivism, respect for tradition, deference to authority, and interdependence. Some may be deterred by the absence of specific techniques. Others will expect more focus on surviving in their world.
Person-centered therapy	Some of the core values of this approach may not be congruent with the client’s culture. Lack of counselor direction and structure are unacceptable for clients who are seeking help and immediate answers from a knowledgeable professional.
Gestalt therapy	Clients who have been culturally conditioned to be emotionally reserved may not embrace Gestalt experiments. Some may not see how “being aware of present experiencing” will lead to solving their problems.
Behavior therapy	Family members may not value clients’ newly acquired assertive style, so clients must be taught how to cope with resistance by others. Counselors need to help clients assess the possible consequences of making behavioral changes.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Before too quickly attempting to change the beliefs and actions of clients, it is essential for the therapist to understand and respect their world. Some clients may have serious reservations about questioning their basic cultural values and beliefs. Clients could become dependent on the therapist choosing appropriate ways to solve problems.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	This approach stresses taking charge of one’s own life, yet some clients are more interested in changing their external environment. Counselors need to appreciate the role of discrimination and racism and help clients deal with social and political realities.
Feminist therapy	This model has been criticized for its bias toward the values of White, middle-class, heterosexual women, which are not applicable to many other groups of women nor to men. Therapists need to assess with their clients the price of making significant personal change, which may result in isolation from extended family as clients assume new roles and make life changes.
Postmodern approaches	Some clients come to therapy wanting to talk about their problems and may be put off by the insistence on talking about exceptions to their problems. Clients may view the therapist as an expert and be reluctant to view themselves as experts. Certain clients may doubt the helpfulness of a therapist who assumes a “not-knowing” position.
Family systems therapy	Family therapy rests on value assumptions that are not congruent with the values of clients from some cultures. Western concepts such as individuation, self-actualization, self-determination, independence, and self-expression may be foreign to some clients. In some cultures, admitting problems within the family is shameful. The value of “keeping problems within the family” may make it difficult to explore conflicts openly.

Contributions of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy	More than any other system, this approach has generated controversy as well as exploration and has stimulated further thinking and development of therapy. It has provided a detailed and comprehensive description of personality structure and functioning. It has brought into prominence factors such as the unconscious as a determinant of behavior and the role of trauma during the first six years of life. It has developed several techniques for tapping the unconscious and shed light on the dynamics of transference and countertransference, resistance, anxiety, and the mechanisms of ego defense.
Adlerian therapy	A key contribution is the influence that Adlerian concepts have had on other systems and the integration of these concepts into various contemporary therapies. This is one of the first approaches to therapy that was humanistic, unified, holistic, and goal-oriented and that put an emphasis on social and psychological factors.
Existential therapy	Its major contribution is recognition of the need for a subjective approach based on a complete view of the human condition. It calls attention to the need for a philosophical statement on what it means to be a person. Stress on the I/Thou relationship lessens the chances of dehumanizing therapy. It provides a perspective for understanding anxiety, guilt, freedom, death, isolation, and commitment.
Person-centered therapy	Clients take an active stance and assume responsibility for the direction of therapy. This unique approach has been subjected to empirical testing, and as a result both theory and methods have been modified. It is an open system. People without advanced training can benefit by translating the therapeutic conditions to both their personal and professional lives. Basic concepts are straightforward and easy to grasp and apply. It is a foundation for building a trusting relationship, applicable to all therapies.
Gestalt therapy	The emphasis on direct experiencing and doing rather than on merely talking about feelings provides a perspective on growth and enhancement, not merely a treatment of disorders. It uses clients’ behavior as the basis for making them aware of their inner creative potential. The approach to dreams is a unique, creative tool to help clients discover basic conflicts. Therapy is viewed as an existential encounter; it is process-oriented, not technique-oriented. It recognizes nonverbal behavior as a key to understanding.
Behavior therapy	Emphasis is on assessment and evaluation techniques, thus providing a basis for accountable practice. Specific problems are identified, and clients are kept informed about progress toward their goals. The approach has demonstrated effectiveness in many areas of human functioning. The roles of the therapist as reinforcer, model, teacher, and consultant are explicit. The approach has undergone extensive expansion, and research literature abounds. No longer is it a mechanistic approach, for it now makes room for cognitive factors and encourages self-directed programs for behavioral change.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Major contributions include emphasis on a comprehensive therapeutic practice; numerous cognitive, emotive, and behavioral techniques; an openness to incorporating techniques from other approaches; and a methodology for challenging and changing faulty or negative thinking. Most forms can be integrated into other mainstream therapies. REBT makes full use of action oriented homework, various psychoeducational methods, and keeping records of progress. CT is a structured therapy that has a good track record for treating depression and anxiety in a short time. Strengths-based CBT is a form of positive psychology that addresses the resources within the client for change.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	This is a positive approach with an action orientation that relies on simple and clear concepts that are easily grasped in many helping professions. It can be used by teachers, nurses, ministers, educators, social workers, and counselors. Due to the direct methods, it appeals to many clients who are often seen as resistant to therapy. It is a short-term approach that can be applied to a diverse population, and it has been a significant force in challenging the medical model of therapy.
Feminist therapy	The feminist perspective is responsible for encouraging increasing numbers of women to question gender stereotypes and to reject limited views of what a woman is expected to be. It is paving the way for gender-sensitive practice and bringing attention to the gendered uses of power in relationships. The unified feminist voice brought attention to the extent and implications of child abuse, incest, rape, sexual harassment, and domestic violence. Feminist principles and interventions can be incorporated in other therapy approaches.
Postmodern approaches	The brevity of these approaches fit well with the limitations imposed by a managed care structure. The emphasis on client strengths and competence appeals to clients who want to create solutions and revise their life stories in a positive direction. Clients are not blamed for their problems but are helped to understand how they might relate in more satisfying ways to such problems. A strength of these approaches is the question format that invites clients to view themselves in new and more effective ways.
Family systems therapy	From a systemic perspective, neither the individual nor the family is blamed for a particular dysfunction. The family is empowered through the process of identifying and exploring interactional patterns. Working with an entire unit provides a new perspective on understanding and working through both individual problems and relationship concerns. By exploring one’s family of origin, there are increased opportunities to resolve other conflicts in systems outside of the family

Contributions of the Approaches

Limitations of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy	Requires lengthy training for therapists and much time and expense for clients. The model stresses biological and instinctual factors to the neglect of social, cultural, and interpersonal ones. Its methods are less applicable for solving specific daily life problems of clients and may not be appropriate for some ethnic and cultural groups. Many clients lack the degree of ego strength needed for regressive and reconstructive therapy. It may be inappropriate for certain counseling settings.
Adlerian therapy	Weak in terms of precision, testability, and empirical validity. Few attempts have been made to validate the basic concepts by scientific methods. Tends to oversimplify some complex human problems and is based heavily on common sense.
Existential therapy	Many basic concepts are fuzzy and ill-defined, making its general framework abstract at times. Lacks a systematic statement of principles and practices of therapy. Has limited applicability to lower functioning and nonverbal clients and to clients in extreme crisis who need direction.
Person-centered therapy	Possible danger from the therapist who remains passive and inactive, limiting responses to reflection. Many clients feel a need for greater direction, more structure, and more techniques. Clients in crisis may need more directive measures. Applied to individual counseling, some cultural groups will expect more counselor activity.
Gestalt therapy	Techniques lead to intense emotional expression; if these feelings are not explored and if cognitive work is not done, clients are likely to be left unfinished and will not have a sense of integration of their learning. Clients who have difficulty using imagination may not profit from certain experiments.
Behavior therapy	Major criticisms are that it may change behavior but not feelings; that it ignores the relational factors in therapy; that it does not provide insight; that it ignores historical causes of present behavior; that it involves control by the therapist; and that it is limited in its capacity to address certain aspects of the human condition.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Tends to play down emotions, does not focus on exploring the unconscious or underlying conflicts, de-emphasizes the value of insight, and sometimes does not give enough weight to the client’s past. CBT might be too structured for some clients.

Choice theory/ Reality therapy	Discounts the therapeutic value of exploration of the client’s past, dreams, the unconscious, early childhood experiences, and transference. The approach is limited to less complex problems. It is a problem-solving therapy that tends to discourage exploration of deeper emotional issues.
Feminist therapy	A possible limitation is the potential for therapists to impose a new set of values on clients—such as striving for equality, power in relationships, defining oneself, freedom to pursue a career outside the home, and the right to an education. Therapists need to keep in mind that clients are their own best experts, which means it is up to them to decide which values to live by.
Postmodern approaches	There is little empirical validation of the effectiveness of therapy outcomes. Some critics contend that these approaches endorse cheerleading and an overly positive perspective. Some are critical of the stance taken by most postmodern therapists regarding assessment and diagnosis, and also react negatively to the “not-knowing” stance of the therapist. Because some of the solution-focused and narrative therapy techniques are relatively easy to learn, practitioners may use these interventions in a mechanical way or implement these techniques without a sound rationale.
Family systems therapy	Limitations include problems in being able to involve all the members of a family in the therapy. Some family members may be resistant to changing the structure of the system. Therapists’ self knowledge and willingness to work on their own family-of-origin issues is crucial, for the potential for countertransference is high. It is essential that the therapist be well trained, receive quality supervision, and be competent in assessing and treating individuals in a family context.

Limitations of the Approaches

Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

Psychodynamic Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy Founder: Sigmund Freud. A theory of personality development, a philosophy of human nature, and a method of psychotherapy that focuses on unconscious factors that motivate behavior. Attention is given to the events of the first six years of life as determinants of the later development of personality.

Adlerian therapy Founder: Alfred Adler. Key Figure: Following Adler, Rudolf Dreikurs is credited with popularizing this approach in the United States. This is a growth model that stresses assuming responsibility, creating one’s own destiny, and finding meaning and goals to create a purposeful life. Key concepts are used in most other current therapies.

Experiential and Relationship-Oriented Therapies

Existential therapy Key figures: Viktor Frankl, Rollo May, and Irvin Yalom. Reacting against the tendency to view therapy as a system of well-defined techniques, this model stresses building therapy on the basic conditions of human existence, such as choice, the freedom and responsibility to shape one’s life, and self-determination. It focuses on the quality of the person-to-person therapeutic relationship.

Person-centered therapy Founder: Carl Rogers; Key figure: Natalie Rogers. This approach was developed during the 1940s as a nondirective reaction against psychoanalysis. Based on a subjective view of human experiencing, it places faith in and gives responsibility to the client in dealing with problems and concerns.

Gestalt therapy Founders: Fritz and Laura Perls; Key figures: Miriam and Erving Polster. An experiential therapy stressing awareness and integration; it grew as a reaction against analytic therapy. It integrates the functioning of body and mind and places emphasis on the therapeutic relationship.

Cognitive Behavioral Approaches

Behavior therapy Key figures: B. F. Skinner, and Albert Bandura. This approach applies the principles of learning to the resolution of specific behavioral problems. Results are subject to continual experimentation. The methods of this approach are always in the process of refinement. The mindfulness and acceptance-based approaches are rapidly gaining popularity.

Cognitive behavior therapy Founders: Albert Ellis and A. T. Beck. Albert Ellis founded rational emotive behavior therapy, a highly didactic, cognitive, action-oriented model of therapy, and A. T. Beck founded cognitive therapy, which gives a primary role to thinking as it influences behavior. Judith Beck continues to develop CBT; Christine Padesky has developed strengths-based CBT; and Donald Meichenbaum, who helped develop cognitive behavior therapy, has made significant contributions to resilience as a factor in coping with trauma.

Choice theory/Reality Founder: William Glasser. Key figure: Robert Wubbolding. This short-term approach is based therapy on choice theory and focuses on the client assuming responsibility in the present. Through the therapeutic process, the client is able to learn more effective ways of meeting her or his needs.

Systems and Postmodern Approaches

Feminist therapy This approach grew out of the efforts of many women, a few of whom are Jean Baker Miller, Carolyn Zerbe Enns, Oliva Espin, and Laura Brown. A central concept is the concern for the psychological oppression of women. Focusing on the constraints imposed by the sociopolitical status to which women have been relegated, this approach explores women’s identity development, self-concept, goals and aspirations, and emotional well-being.

Postmodern approaches A number of key figures are associated with the development of these various approaches to therapy. Steve de Shazer and Insoo Kim Berg are the cofounders of solution-focused brief therapy. Michael White and David Epston are the major figures associated with narrative therapy. Social constructionism, solution-focused brief therapy, and narrative therapy all assume that there is no single truth; rather, it is believed that reality is socially constructed through human interaction. These approaches maintain that the client is an expert in his or her own life.

Family systems therapy A number of significant figures have been pioneers of the family systems approach, two of whom include Murray Bowen and Virginia Satir. This systemic approach is based on the assumption that the key to changing the individual is understanding and working with the family.

Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

	Defense	Uses for Behavior
Repression	Threatening or painful thoughts and feelings are excluded from awareness.	One of the most important Freudian processes, it is the basis of many other ego defenses and of neurotic disorders. Freud explained repression as an involuntary removal of something from consciousness. It is assumed that most of the painful events of the first five or six years of life are buried, yet these events do influence later behavior.
Denial	“Closing one’s eyes” to the existence of a threatening aspect of reality.	Denial of reality is perhaps the simplest of all self defense mechanisms. It is a way of distorting what the individual thinks, feels, or perceives in a traumatic situation. This mechanism is similar to repression, yet it generally operates at preconscious and conscious levels.
Reaction formation	Actively expressing the opposite impulse when confronted with a threatening impulse.	By developing conscious attitudes and behaviors that are diametrically opposed to disturbing desires, people do not have to face the anxiety that would result if they were to recognize these dimensions of themselves. Individuals may conceal hate with a facade of love, be extremely nice when they harbor negative reactions, or mask cruelty with excessive kindness.
Projection	Attributing to others one’s own unacceptable desires and impulses.	This is a mechanism of self-deception. Lustful, aggressive, or other impulses are seen as being possessed by “those people out there, but not by me.”
Displacement	Directing energy toward another object or person when the original object or person is inaccessible.	Displacement is a way of coping with anxiety that involves discharging impulses by shifting from a threatening object to a “safer target.” For example, the meek man who feels intimidated by his boss comes home and unloads inappropriate hostility onto his children.
Rationalization	Manufacturing “good” reasons to explain away a bruised ego.	Rationalization helps justify specific behaviors, and it aids in softening the blow connected with disappointments. When people do not get positions, they have applied for in their work, they think of logical reasons they did not succeed, and they sometimes attempt to convince themselves that they really did not want the position anyway.
Sublimation	Diverting sexual or aggressive energy into other channels.	Energy is usually diverted into socially acceptable and sometimes even admirable channels. For example, aggressive impulses can be channeled into athletic activities, so that the person finds a way of expressing aggressive feelings and, as an added bonus, is often praised.
Regression	Going back to an earlier phase of development when there were fewer demands.	In the face of severe stress or extreme challenge, individuals may attempt to cope with their anxiety by clinging to immature and inappropriate behaviors. For example, children who are frightened in school may indulge in infantile behavior such as weeping, excessive dependence, thumb-sucking, hiding, or clinging to the teacher.
Introjection	Taking in and “swallowing” the values and standards of others.	Positive forms of introjection include incorporation of parental values or the attributes and values of the therapist (assuming that these are not merely uncritically accepted). One negative example is that in concentration camps some of the prisoners dealt with overwhelming anxiety by accepting the values of the enemy through identification with the aggressor.
Identification	Identifying with successful causes, organizations, or people in the hope that you will be perceived as worthwhile.	Identification can enhance self-worth and protect one from a sense of being a failure. This is part of the developmental process by which children learn gender-role behaviors, but it can also be a defensive reaction when used by people who feel basically inferior.
Compensation	Masking perceived weaknesses or developing certain positive traits to make up for limitations.	This mechanism can have direct adjustive value, and it can also be an attempt by the person to say “Don’t see the ways in which I am inferior, but see me in my accomplishments.”

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

Period of Life

Freud

Erikson

First year of life

Oral stage

Sucking at mother’s breasts satisfies need for food and pleasure. Infant needs to get basic nurturing, or later feelings of greediness and acquisitiveness may develop. Oral fixations result from deprivation of oral gratification in infancy. Later personality problems can include mistrust of others, rejecting others; love, and fear of or inability to form intimate relationships.

Infancy: Trust versus mistrust

If significant others provide for basic physical and emotional needs, infant develops a sense of trust. If basic needs are not met, an attitude of mistrust toward the world, especially toward interpersonal relationships, is the result.

Ages 1-3

Anal stage

Anal zone becomes of major significance in formation of personality. Main developmental tasks include learning independence, accepting personal power, and learning to express negative feelings such as rage and aggression. Parental discipline patterns and attitudes have significant consequences for child’s later personality development.

Early childhood: Autonomy versus shame and doubt

A time for developing autonomy. Basic struggle is between a sense of self-reliance and a sense of self-doubt. Child needs to explore and experiment, to make mistakes, and to test limits. If parents promote dependency, child’s autonomy is inhibited and capacity to deal with world successfully is hampered.

Ages 3-6

Phallic stage

Basic conflict centers on unconscious incestuous desires that child develops for parent of opposite sex and that, because of their threatening nature, are repressed. Male phallic stage, known as Oedipus complex, involves mother as love object for boy. Female phallic stage, known as Electra complex, involves girl’s striving for father’s love and approval. How parents respond, verbally and nonverbally, to child’s emerging sexuality has an impact on sexual attitudes and feelings that child develops.

Preschool age: Initiative versus guilt

Basic task is to achieve a sense of competence and initiative. If children are given freedom to select personally meaningful activities, they tend to develop a positive view of self and follow through with their projects. If they are not allowed to make their own decisions, they tend to develop guilt over taking initiative. They then refrain from taking an active stance and allow others to choose for them.

Ages 6-12

Latency stage

After the torment of sexual impulses of preceding years, this period is relatively quiescent. Sexual interests are replaced by interests in school, playmates, sports, and a range of new activities. This is a time of socialization as child turns outward and forms relationships with others.

School age: Industry versus inferiority

Child needs to expand understanding of world, continue to develop appropriate gender-role identity, and learn the basic skills required for school success. Basic task is to achieve a sense of industry, which refers to setting and attaining personal goals. Failure to do so results in a sense of inadequacy.

Ages 12-18

Genital stage

Old themes of phallic stage are revived. This stage begins with puberty and lasts until senility sets in. Even though there are societal restrictions and taboos, adolescents can deal with sexual energy by investing it in various socially acceptable activities such as forming friendships, engaging in art or in sports, and preparing for a career.

Adolescence: Identity versus role confusion A time of transition between childhood and adulthood.

A time for testing limits, for breaking dependent ties, and for establishing a new identity. Major conflicts center on clarification of self-identity, life goals, and life’s meaning. Failure to achieve a sense of identity results in role confusion.

Period of Life	Freud	Erikson
Ages 18-35	Genital stage continues Core characteristic of mature adult is the freedom “to love and to work.” This move toward adulthood involves freedom from parental influence and capacity to care for others.	Young adulthood: Intimacy versus isolation. Developmental task at this time is to form intimate relationships. Failure to achieve intimacy can lead to alienation and isolation.
Ages 35-60	Genital stage continues	Middle age: Generativity versus stagnation. There is a need to go beyond self and family and be involved in helping the next generation. This is a time of adjusting to the discrepancy between one’s dream and one’s actual accomplishments. Failure to achieve a sense of productivity often leads to psychological stagnation.
Ages 60+	Genital stage continues	Later life: Integrity versus despair If one looks back on life with few regrets and feels personally worthwhile, ego integrity results. Failure to achieve ego integrity can lead to feelings of despair, hopelessness, guilt, resentment, and self-rejection.

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

The Basic Philosophies

Psychoanalytic therapy	Human beings are basically determined by psychic energy and by early experiences. Unconscious motives and conflicts are central in present behavior. Early development is of critical importance because later personality problems have their roots in repressed childhood conflicts.
Adlerian therapy	Humans are motivated by social interest, by striving toward goals, by inferiority and superiority, and by dealing with the tasks of life. Emphasis is on the individual’s positive capacities to live in society cooperatively. People have the capacity to interpret, influence, and create events. Each person at an early age creates a unique style of life, which tends to remain relatively constant throughout life.
Existential therapy	The central focus is on the nature of the human condition, which includes a capacity for self awareness, freedom of choice to decide one’s fate, responsibility, anxiety, the search for meaning, being alone and being in relation with others, striving for authenticity, and facing living and dying.
Person-centered therapy	Positive view of people; we have an inclination toward becoming fully functioning. In the context of the therapeutic relationship, the client experiences feelings that were previously denied to awareness. The client moves toward increased awareness, spontaneity, trust in self, and inner-directedness.
Gestalt therapy	The person strives for wholeness and integration of thinking, feeling, and behaving. Some key concepts include contact with self and others, contact boundaries, and awareness. The view is nondeterministic in that the person is viewed as having the capacity to recognize how earlier influences are related to present difficulties. As an experiential approach, it is grounded in the here and now and emphasizes awareness, personal choice, and responsibility.
Behavior therapy	Behavior is the product of learning. We are both the product and the producer of the environment. Traditional behavior therapy is based on classical and operant principles. Contemporary behavior therapy has branched out in many directions, including mindfulness and acceptance approaches.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Individuals tend to incorporate faulty thinking, which leads to emotional and behavioral disturbances. Cognitions are the major determinants of how we feel and act. Therapy is primarily oriented toward cognition and behavior, and it stresses the role of thinking, deciding, questioning, doing, and redeciding. This is a psychoeducational model, which emphasizes therapy as a learning process, including acquiring and practicing new skills, learning new ways of thinking, and acquiring more effective ways of coping with problems.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	Based on choice theory, this approach assumes that we need quality relationships to be happy. Psychological problems are the result of our resisting control by others or of our attempt to control others. Choice theory is an explanation of human nature and how to best achieve satisfying interpersonal relationships.
Feminist therapy	Feminists criticize many traditional theories to the degree that they are based on gender-biased concepts, such as being androcentric, gender centric, ethnocentric, heterosexist, and intrapsychic. The constructs of feminist therapy include being gender fair, flexible, interactionist, and life-span-oriented. Gender and power are at the heart of feminist therapy. This is a systems approach that recognizes the cultural, social, and political factors that contribute to an individual’s problems.
Postmodern approaches	Based on the premise that there are multiple realities and multiple truths, postmodern therapies reject the idea that reality is external and can be grasped. People create meaning in their lives through conversations with others. The postmodern approaches avoid pathologizing clients, take a dim view of diagnosis, avoid searching for underlying causes of problems, and place a high value on discovering clients’ strengths and resources. Rather than talking about problems, the focus of therapy is on creating solutions in the present and the future.
Family systems therapy	The family is viewed from an interactive and systemic perspective. Clients are connected to a living system; a change in one part of the system will result in a change in other parts. The family provides the context for understanding how individuals function in relationship to others and how they behave. Treatment deals with the family unit. An individual’s dysfunctional behavior grows out of the interactional unit of the family and out of larger systems as well.

The Basic Philosophies

Key Concepts

Psychoanalytic therapy	Normal personality development is based on successful resolution and integration of psychosexual stages of development. Faulty personality development is the result of inadequate resolution of some specific stage. Anxiety is a result of repression of basic conflicts. Unconscious processes are centrally related to current behavior.
Adlerian therapy	Key concepts include the unity of personality, the need to view people from their subjective perspective, and the importance of life goals that give direction to behavior. People are motivated by social interest and by finding goals to give life meaning. Other key concepts are striving for significance and superiority, developing a unique lifestyle, and understanding the family constellation. Therapy is a matter of providing encouragement and assisting clients in changing their cognitive perspective and behavior.
Existential therapy	Essentially an experiential approach to counseling rather than a firm theoretical model, it stresses core human conditions. Interest is on the present and on what one is becoming. The approach has a future orientation and stresses self-awareness before action.
Person-centered therapy	The client has the potential to become aware of problems and the means to resolve them. Faith is placed in the client’s capacity for self-direction. Mental health is a congruence of ideal self and real self. Maladjustment is the result of a discrepancy between what one wants to be and what one is. In therapy attention is given to the present moment and on experiencing and expressing feelings.
Gestalt therapy	Emphasis is on the “what” and “how” of experiencing in the here and now to help clients accept all aspects of themselves. Key concepts include holism, figure-formation process, awareness, unfinished business and avoidance, contact, and energy.
Behavior therapy	Focus is on overt behavior, precision in specifying goals of treatment, development of specific treatment plans, and objective evaluation of therapy outcomes. Present behavior is given attention. Therapy is based on the principles of learning theory. Normal behavior is learned through reinforcement and imitation. Abnormal behavior is the result of faulty learning.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Although psychological problems may be rooted in childhood, they are reinforced by present ways of thinking. A person’s belief system and thinking is the primary cause of disorders. Internal dialogue plays a central role in one’s behavior. Clients focus on examining faulty assumptions and misconceptions and on replacing these with effective beliefs.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	The basic focus is on what clients are doing and how to get them to evaluate whether their present actions are working for them. People are mainly motivated to satisfy their needs, especially the need for significant relationships. The approach rejects the medical model, the notion of transference, the unconscious, and dwelling on one’s past.
Feminist therapy	Core principles of feminist therapy are that the personal is political, therapists have a commitment to social change, women’s voices and ways of knowing are valued and women’s experiences are honored, the counseling relationship is egalitarian, therapy focuses on strengths and a reformulated definition of psychological distress, and all types of oppression are recognized.
Postmodern approaches	Therapy tends to be brief and addresses the present and the future. The person is not the problem; the problem is the problem. The emphasis is on externalizing the problem and looking for exceptions to the problem. Therapy consists of a collaborative dialogue in which the therapist and the client co-create solutions. By identifying instances when the problem did not exist, clients can create new meanings for themselves and fashion a new life story.
Family systems therapy	Focus is on communication patterns within a family, both verbal and nonverbal. Problems in relationships are likely to be passed on from generation to generation. Key concepts vary depending on specific orientation but include differentiation, triangles, power coalitions, family-of-origin dynamics, functional versus dysfunctional interaction patterns, and dealing with here-and-now interactions. The present is more important than exploring past experiences.

Key Concepts

Goals of Therapy

Psychoanalytic therapy	To make the unconscious conscious. To reconstruct the basic personality. To assist clients in reliving earlier experiences and working through repressed conflicts. To achieve intellectual and emotional awareness.
Adlerian therapy	To challenge clients’ basic premises and life goals. To offer encouragement so individuals can develop socially useful goals and increase social interest. To develop the client’s sense of belonging.
Existential therapy	To help people see that they are free and to become aware of their possibilities. To challenge them to recognize that they are responsible for events that they formerly thought were happening to them. To identify factors that block freedom.
Person-centered therapy	To provide a safe climate conducive to clients’ self-exploration. To help clients recognize blocks to growth and experience aspects of self that were formerly denied or distorted. To enable them to move toward openness, greater trust in self, willingness to be a process, and increased spontaneity and aliveness. To find meaning in life and to experience life fully. To become more self-directed.
Gestalt therapy	To assist clients in gaining awareness of moment-to-moment experiencing and to expand the capacity to make choices. To foster integration of the self.
Behavior therapy	To eliminate maladaptive behaviors and learn more effective behaviors. To identify factors that influence behavior and find out what can be done about problematic behavior. To encourage clients to take an active and collaborative role in clearly setting treatment goals and evaluating how well these goals are being met.
Cognitive behavior therapy	To teach clients to confront faulty beliefs with contradictory evidence that they gather and evaluate. To help clients seek out their faulty beliefs and minimize them. To become aware of automatic thoughts and to change them. To assist clients in identifying their inner strengths, and to explore the kind of life they would like to have.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	To help people become more effective in meeting all of their psychological needs. To enable clients to get reconnected with the people they have chosen to put into their quality worlds and teach clients choice theory.
Feminist therapy	To bring about transformation both in the individual client and in society. To assist clients in recognizing, claiming, and using their personal power to free themselves from the limitations of gender-role socialization. To confront all forms of institutional policies that discriminate or oppress on any basis.
Postmodern approaches	To change the way clients, view problems and what they can do about these concerns. To collaboratively establish specific, clear, concrete, realistic, and observable goals leading to increased positive change. To help clients create a self-identity grounded on competence and resourcefulness so they can resolve present and future concerns. To assist clients in viewing their lives in positive ways, rather than being problem saturated.
Family systems therapy	To help family members gain awareness of patterns of relationships that are not working well and to create new ways of interacting. To identify how a client’s problematic behavior may serve a function or purpose for the family. To understand how dysfunctional patterns can be handed down across generations. To recognize how family rules can affect each family member. To understand how past family of origin experiences continue to have an impact on individuals.

The Therapeutic Relationship

Psychoanalytic therapy	The classical analyst remains anonymous, and clients develop projections toward him or her. The focus is on reducing the resistances that develop in working with transference and on establishing more rational control. Clients undergo long-term analysis, engage in free association to uncover conflicts, and gain insight by talking. The analyst makes interpretations to teach clients the meaning of current behavior as it relates to the past. In contemporary relational psychoanalytic therapy, the relationship is central, and emphasis is given to here-and-now dimensions of this relationship.
Adlerian therapy	The emphasis is on joint responsibility, on mutually determining goals, on mutual trust and respect, and on equality. The focus is on identifying, exploring, and disclosing mistaken goals and faulty assumptions within the person’s lifestyle.
Existential therapy	The therapist’s main tasks are to accurately grasp clients’ being in the world and to establish a personal and authentic encounter with them. The immediacy of the client–therapist relationship and the authenticity of the here-and-now encounter are stressed. Both client and therapist can be changed by the encounter.
Person-centered therapy	The relationship is of primary importance. The qualities of the therapist, including genuineness, warmth, accurate empathy, respect, and being nonjudgmental—and communication of these attitudes to clients—are stressed. Clients use this genuine relationship with the therapist to help them transfer what they learn to other relationships.
Gestalt therapy	Central importance is given to the I/Thou relationship and the quality of the therapist’s presence. The therapist’s attitudes and behavior count more than the techniques used. The therapist does not interpret for clients but assists them in developing the means to make their own interpretations. Clients identify and work on unfinished business from the past that interferes with current functioning.
Behavior therapy	The therapist is active and directive and functions as a teacher or mentor in helping clients learn more effective behavior. Clients must be active in the process and experiment with new behaviors. Although a quality client–therapist relationship is not viewed as sufficient to bring about change, it is considered essential for implementing behavioral procedures.
Cognitive behavior therapy	In REBT the therapist functions as a teacher and the client as a student. The therapist is highly directive and teaches clients an A-B-C model of changing their cognitions. In CT the focus is on a collaborative relationship. Using a Socratic dialogue, the therapist assists clients in identifying dysfunctional beliefs and discovering alternative rules for living. The therapist promotes corrective experiences that lead to learning new skills. Clients gain insight into their problems and then must actively practice changing self-defeating thinking and acting. In strengths-based CBT, active incorporation of client strengths encourages full engagement in therapy and often provides avenues for change that otherwise would be missed.
Choice theory/ Reality therapy	A fundamental task is for the therapist to create a good relationship with the client. Therapists are then able to engage clients in an evaluation of all of their relationships with respect to what they want and how effective they are in getting this. Therapists find out what clients want, ask what they are choosing to do, invite them to evaluate present behavior, help them make plans for change, and get them to make a commitment. The therapist is a client’s advocate, as long as the client is willing to attempt to behave responsibly.
Feminist therapy	The therapeutic relationship is based on empowerment and egalitarianism. Therapists actively break down the hierarchy of power and reduce artificial barriers by engaging in appropriate self disclosure and teaching clients about the therapy process. Therapists strive to create a collaborative relationship in which clients can become their own expert.

Postmodern approaches

Therapy is a collaborative partnership. Clients are viewed as the experts on their own life. Therapists use questioning dialogue to help clients free themselves from their problem-saturated stories and create new life-affirming stories. Solution-focused therapists assume an active role in guiding the client away from problem-talk and toward solution-talk. Clients are encouraged to explore their strengths and to create solutions that will lead to a richer future. Narrative therapists assist clients in externalizing problems and guide them in examining self-limiting stories and creating new and more liberating stories.

Family systems therapy

The family therapist functions as a teacher, coach, model, and consultant. The family learns ways to detect and solve problems that are keeping members stuck, and it learns about patterns that have been transmitted from generation to generation. Some approaches focus on the role of therapist as expert; others concentrate on intensifying what is going on in the here and now of the family session. All family therapists are concerned with the process of family interaction and teaching patterns of communication.

The Therapeutic Relationship

Limitations of the Approaches

Psychoanalytic therapy	Requires lengthy training for therapists and much time and expense for clients. The model stresses biological and instinctual factors to the neglect of social, cultural, and interpersonal ones. Its methods are less applicable for solving specific daily life problems of clients and may not be appropriate for some ethnic and cultural groups. Many clients lack the degree of ego strength needed for regressive and reconstructive therapy. It may be inappropriate for certain counseling settings.
Adlerian therapy	Weak in terms of precision, testability, and empirical validity. Few attempts have been made to validate the basic concepts by scientific methods. Tends to oversimplify some complex human problems and is based heavily on common sense.
Existential therapy	Many basic concepts are fuzzy and ill-defined, making its general framework abstract at times. Lacks a systematic statement of principles and practices of therapy. Has limited applicability to lower functioning and nonverbal clients and to clients in extreme crisis who need direction.
Person-centered therapy	Possible danger from the therapist who remains passive and inactive, limiting responses to reflection. Many clients feel a need for greater direction, more structure, and more techniques. Clients in crisis may need more directive measures. Applied to individual counseling, some cultural groups will expect more counselor activity.
Gestalt therapy	Techniques lead to intense emotional expression; if these feelings are not explored and if cognitive work is not done, clients are likely to be left unfinished and will not have a sense of integration of their learning. Clients who have difficulty using imagination may not profit from certain experiments.
Behavior therapy	Major criticisms are that it may change behavior but not feelings; that it ignores the relational factors in therapy; that it does not provide insight; that it ignores historical causes of present behavior; that it involves control by the therapist; and that it is limited in its capacity to address certain aspects of the human condition.
Cognitive behavior therapy	Tends to play down emotions, does not focus on exploring the unconscious or underlying conflicts, de-emphasizes the value of insight, and sometimes does not give enough weight to the client’s past. CBT might be too structured for some clients.

Choice theory/ Reality therapy	Discounts the therapeutic value of exploration of the client’s past, dreams, the unconscious, early childhood experiences, and transference. The approach is limited to less complex problems. It is a problem-solving therapy that tends to discourage exploration of deeper emotional issues.
Feminist therapy	A possible limitation is the potential for therapists to impose a new set of values on clients—such as striving for equality, power in relationships, defining oneself, freedom to pursue a career outside the home, and the right to an education. Therapists need to keep in mind that clients are their own best experts, which means it is up to them to decide which values to live by.
Postmodern approaches	There is little empirical validation of the effectiveness of therapy outcomes. Some critics contend that these approaches endorse cheerleading and an overly positive perspective. Some are critical of the stance taken by most postmodern therapists regarding assessment and diagnosis, and also react negatively to the “not-knowing” stance of the therapist. Because some of the solution-focused and narrative therapy techniques are relatively easy to learn, practitioners may use these interventions in a mechanical way or implement these techniques without a sound rationale.
Family systems therapy	Limitations include problems in being able to involve all the members of a family in the therapy. Some family members may be resistant to changing the structure of the system. Therapists’ self knowledge and willingness to work on their own family-of-origin issues is crucial, for the potential for countertransference is high. It is essential that the therapist be well trained, receive quality supervision, and be competent in assessing and treating individuals in a family context.

Limitations of the Approaches

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Article Critique Paper In APA Format assignment help

January 31, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Article Critique Paper In APA Format assignment help

Running head: MIND OVER MILKSHAKES 2

MIND OVER MILKSHAKES 2

Mind Over Milkshakes:

Mindsets, Not Just Nutrients, Determine Ghrelin Response

Kristen Tomlinson

Florida International University

Mind Over Milkshakes

Summary:

This study used an experimental research method because the independent variable is being manipulated and involves random assignment. There is only one main independent variable. It is the altered food labels that were used to isolate the effect of the mindset in the response to an experimental manipulation. They were scheduled for two, 2 1/2-hour sessions at the Yale Clinical Research Center Hospital Research Unit. The sessions were spread a week apart, one at 8:00 a.m. and the other at 8:20 a.m. after having an overnight fast. At the first session, the participants were told that the metabolic kitchen at the research center was working on designing two different milkshakes with different nutritional contents in them. They would taste one milkshake one week and another the following week. They were told the goal of this study is to determine whether the milkshakes taste the same and to examine the body’s reaction to the contents. This independent variable is evaluated to see how it affects the dependent variable, which is their ghrelin levels and how their body reacts to it as well as, the participants thoughts on if the milkshakes tasted good, whether it was healthy, and their feelings of hunger.

For the researcher to control how quick the participants consume the shake, they were instructed to drink the whole shake within the first 10 mins of this interval. They were all normal weight, they were asked to do an overnight fast before, so that all their ghrelin levels were around the same the next morning and they were all between the ages of 18-35. They were also screened for diabetes, pregnancy, allergies and a variety of other medical conditions.The procedure goes as follows: Participants were told they were participating in a study to see whether the milkshakes tasted similar and to examine how to the body will react to the different nutrients in the shakes. What they don’t know is that the two milkshakes are identical. To complete this study, the participants were scheduled for two, 2 ½- hour sessions at the Yale research center. At each session, an internal catheter was placed to draw blood and after a 20-minute rest, the first blood sample is drawn, followed by samples being taken at the 60- and 90-minute marks. During the first interval, participants were asked to rate the labels. Then during the second interval, they were asked to drink and rate the shake. The order of how the milkshakes were presented to the participants was counterbalanced so half received the sensi-shake in the first session and the other half received the indulgent shake in the first session.

To assess the effect of the degree of satiation and on the participants perception of healthiness and tastiness of the milkshakes, a mixed model analysis of variance (ANOVA) was conducted with shake type, restrained eating, and order were included in the model as factors to be used in the study (Crum et al., 2011, p. 427). The results of this study confirmed their hypothesis. When participants drank one of the shakes with an indulgent mindset, the levels of ghrelin were much lower than the participants who drank the sensi-shake, which suggests there is a relationship between satiation and craving. On the other hand, when participants drank the other shake (which was the sensi-shake) they showed a slight increase in their levels of ghrelin over the time of consumption. But they were not physiologically satiated. In this article, the authors noted that the participants rated the sensi-shake as much “healthier” than the indulgent. However, there are no significant differences in how the participants reported their feelings of hunger during the experiment which shows that there is no relationship between satiation and cravings.

Critique:

Overall this study was well designed by testing the hypothesis on whether the physiological satiation that is being measured by ghrelin, may vary depending on the mindsets of the participants when they consumed the milkshakes. The method of using the same shake for two groups of participants and the responses are very similar to the proven phenomenon of counterregulatory eating. Counterregulatory eating refers to a situation in which a person will eat more after having eaten something previously then after having eaten nothing at all. Therefore, the results of Brownell, Corbin, Crum, and Salovey (2011) makes sense because when people think they have consumed a high-calorie food they report as being full and eat less in response, whereas when people believe they have consumed a low-calorie food they report as still being hungry and eat more in response.

Based on the results, chances are that the participants pattern of ghrelin responses is consistent with what one might observe if they were to consume drinks with different caloric contents, so in that sense this study can be considered reliable (meaning it can be repeatable). Also, in the current sample of people, reliability of the restraint eating subscale was adequate. Validity is not as strong, though. Validity refers to whether the study is measuring what it is supposed to measure. When the participants drank the indulgent shake, they had a decline in their ghrelin responses than when they drank the sensible shake. Incorporating subsequent consumption is important for putting these findings in the context of the literature on restrained eating. Even though restrained eating was not a significant piece in the ghrelin responses in the study, research supports the fact that restrained eaters will respond differently to food and label cues than those who are not restraining their eating. In this study, the ghrelin profiles, were psychologically mediated and were dependent on the expectations of the milkshakes nutritional contents as opposed to the nutritional differences. However, the analyses of the measure of hunger, produced no interaction effects as a function of the shake, time, or restrained eating. So how can they measure whether subtle changes in the mindset associated with eating might affect the release of ghrelin in response to consumption if they want participants to fast overnight? I’m not sure that they were measuring their variables right. It did show that even though there were no significant differences to their hunger regardless of mindset after having consumed the milkshake, findings state that the psychological mindset of sensibility during consumption may dampen the effect of ghrelin. The ethics in this study is questionable. The sensible label manipulation may have elicited the mindset of restraint even in the participants that did not consistently report themselves as being restrained. By doing this could have caused negative results at the end of the study. Nonetheless, participants drank the indulgent shake and had a steeper decline in ghrelin than when they drank the sensible shake. Due to the nature of this research question, there is no other way to measure if changes in the mindset will influence the release the ghrelin in the body.

The method that they used for this study is better than the alternatives because they recruited a sample of random participants by putting up flyers around the community. They explained to the participants what the goal of the study was while also keeping information from them about what the study is about so that way the researches can manipulate the labels on the milkshakes. They also did a good job choosing the age range for the sample, as well as running a screening to test them for allergies, pregnancy and other medical conditions so they can make sure everything goes good with the study and they won’t have any major differences with the results. Clearly this method is a great way of exhibiting an experimental research study. Also, by using the restraint subscale allowed the researchers to have a stable factor structure across genders and weight categories.

Based on the results, in order to assess the label manipulation on the health and taste of the milkshake, a model analysis had to be used to interpret the data. For the healthiness, there was significant effect on the type of shake and no interaction effect for the restrained eating or the order in which the shakes were consumed. There were no effects on the tastiness of the shakes. Simple tests suggest that participants rated the sensible shake as being healthier than the indulgent shake. To test the effect of ghrelin and hunger, researchers assessed the data using a mixed-model with time, the type of shake, and order (session 1 and 2). The model did fail to interpret the data and effects of the order of the shakes. The participants did exhibit a steeper rise in ghrelin as well as a steep decline in hunger when they consumed the indulgent shake. Whereas, when they consumed the sensible shake, the levels of ghrelin exhibited as being flat or slightly increased over the course of consumption and were not physiologically satiated despite having the same nutritional contents. As for the measure of the hunger, the analyses produced no effects as a function of the shake, the time or the restrained eating. However, in this case the ghrelin profiles were psychologically mediated. Although the effect of psychologically mediated differences on long term alterations in weight and following consumption were not measured in this study, future research on the impact of this phenomenon on metabolic maintenance is justified. Increased ghrelin levels can cause an increase in body weight and fat gain because of the amount of caloric consumption. The flat ghrelin profiles that were shown when the participants consumed the sensible shake, may be placing them in a psychologically challenging state by showing an increase in appetite and a decrease in their metabolic rate.

Brief summary

Brownell, Corbin, Crum and Salovey (2011) designed a study to test the hypothesis of whether physiological satiation as measured by the gut peptide ghrelin may vary depending on the mindset in which one approaches consumption of food. On 2 occasions, a sample of 46 participants consumed a 380-calorie milkshake under the pretense of two milkshakes (indulgent and sensi-shake). Ghrelin was measured via IV blood samples at 3 time points: baseline, anticipatory and post consumption. During the first interval, researchers asked the participants to view and rate the (mislead) label of the milkshake. During the second interval, they were asked to drink and rate the shake. The mindset the participants had when they consumed the indulgent shake produced a steeper decline in ghrelin, whereas the mindset they had when they consumed the sensible shake was a flat ghrelin response. The satiety was consistent throughout with what they believed rather than the actual nutritional value. The authors concluded that the effect of food consumption on ghrelin may be psychologically mediated, and the mindset affects physiological responses to food.

References

Brownell, K.D., Corbin, W.R., Crum, A.J., & Salovey, P. (2011). Mind over milkshakes: Mindsets, not just nutrients, determine ghrelin response. Health Psychology, 30, 424-429. doi: 10.1037/a0023467

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Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

January 31, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

THE ASSIGNMENT:

Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

Resources

For this assignment, complete the Assessment Process sections of the treatment plan for your course project. This treatment plan is based on the case study you selected for your course project. You can review the case studies in the Case Study Treatment Plan media piece available in the resources.

The Assessment Process sections of the treatment plan that you will complete for this assignment consist of the following:

Identifying information.
Presenting problem.
Previous treatments.
Strengths, weaknesses, and social support systems.
Assessment.
Diagnosis.
References.

The sections of the treatment plan you submit for this assignment should be 4–5 pages in length, with a minimum of two references from current articles in the professional literature in counseling. Be sure to cite your references in current APA format.

To assist you in completing this assignment, please use the Case Study Treatment Plan Template (available in the resources) to organize your work. Each section of the template includes a description of the type of information you must include. You should type your paper directly into this template, save it as a Word document with your name, and then submit it to the assignment area.

For additional information, see the course project description.

Submit your paper to Turnitin before you post it to the assignment area so you can catch any areas that are showing up as possible plagiarism.

Note: Your instructor may also use the Writing Feedback Tool to provide feedback on your writing. In the tool, click on the linked resources for helpful writing information.

THE CASE STUDY

Oscar is a 19-year-old Hispanic male who is the oldest of 5 children. His family has been farming the same land for 4 generations. Currently they grow vegetables for the regional grocery chain’s produce departments. They live in a rural area of the county. Three generations live in two separate houses on their land. They are fiercely independent and have little to do with people in town, although the family itself is extremely close knit.

Oscar is currently a freshman at the same college his father attended, majoring in agriculture. When he came home for spring break, his parents noticed significant changes in his appearance. He had lost weight, looked haggard, wasn’t sleeping and seemed irritable and argumentative. He told his parents that he did not want to return to college after the break. He went on to say that his roommate had placed cameras in the room so he could record everything Oscar did while the roommate was absent. His grades were poor and he expressed that he believed his instructors were prejudiced against him. This poor performance was in stark contrast to his performance in high school, where he was in the top 10% of his class. Within days of coming home he had stopped showering and began wearing multiple layers of clothes (3 pairs of jeans and 4 t-shirts). He became essentially non-communicative, responding to questions with one-word answers and not initiating conversation. Oscar seemed unhappy or irritable whenever he encountered a member of his family and began spending all his time in his room. He even refused to talk with his youngest brother, with whom he had always been close. He did not take meals with his family, a long-standing tradition in his family, and left his room only in the middle of the night. He could then be heard opening drawers in the kitchen, going into his siblings’ rooms and leaving the house for long periods of time.

The family (parents and grandparents) became very disturbed and consulted their priest. The priest recommended that the parents take Oscar to see a fellow parishioner who is also a counselor. This counselor was also disturbed with Oscar’s presentation and recommended hospitalization. The family was very reluctant, but eventually agreed. By the time they got to the hospital, Oscar was essentially non-communicative, only nodding or shaking his head in response to direct questions.

The parents provided history that indicated Oscar had been a good student in high school and had participated in the school’s FFA club. He has always wanted to carry on the family tradition of farming. He did not have many friends, but the family attributed that to their living in the country.

The psychiatrist diagnosed Oscar with major depressive disorder, single episode, severe with psychotic features and prescribed anti-depressants. He was released three weeks later, with some improvement. One week later he was readmitted, with the same presentation he had at the previous admission. This time, though, his father reported that he had found a cache of knives in the barn, some from the house, some from the grandparent’s house and some from the barn itself. When he asked Oscar about them, Oscar responded that he needed them to protect himself from attacks. When his father asked from whom, Oscar responded that he had seen one of his college professors in the field of broccoli. That same day, Oscar’s mother found notes stuffed between Oscar’s mattress and box springs in Oscar’s handwriting. The content of them was Oscar arguing with someone about killing his younger siblings. One side did not want to do it and begged to not have to; the other side ordered the killings, saying that was the only way to keep them safe. In light of these two events, both parents were afraid for Oscar to remain at the house. Oscar swore that he would never hurt any of his family and said that was why he had been keeping away from them. His parents could not be sure that no harm would come and were unable to watch Oscar day and night. Therefore, they readmitted him to the hospital.

During this admission, Oscar was more forthcoming with his treatment team. Once they had this additional information, the team realized that Oscar’s initial diagnosis had been wrong. They began a re-assessment. Oscar acknowledged that the problems began about the time of the new semester. He was unable to complete his school work, as he was “consumed” with the need to follow instructions that were being given to him. These instructions actually began with a buzzing in his head, which quickly evolved into specific directions. When pressed, he acknowledged that he did not know who was giving him the directions, though he sometimes thought it might be Jesus. These instructions were for him to keep a log of every time he heard a door close on his hallway in the dorm. Oscar came to believe that doing this was the only way to keep his family safe from dark angels. Oscar tried to keep these voices quiet by smoking marijuana on a daily basis. While this helped in the short term, it also made it more difficult for him to complete any of his school work. By the time for spring break, the messages had begun to change. He was no longer able to keep his family safe by keeping a list; the voices told him he would have to kill them. Oscar knew that he did not want to kill his family. He could also not avoid going home for spring break. Therefore, he devised the plan to isolate himself.

Once the family recovered from their initial shock and as Oscar began to show some improvement with his new, anti-psychotic, medication, his parents and grandparents wanted to take him home to the farm. They believed that life on the farm, being outside and with hard, physical labor would cure Oscar. Finally, Oscar agreed to tell them what has been happening with him. At that point, the family agreed to residential treatment for Oscar. When asked if anyone else in the family has ever had symptoms like this, the grandfather acknowledged that he had a brother (Oscar’s uncle) who had religious visions. This brother left the family and became a monk. Later the family heard that he had died under mysterious circumstances. One of the other monks at the monastery told Oscar’s grandfather that his brother had died from engaging in a prolonged fast. The family is very lucky on two counts: 1) they have their medical insurance through the farmer’s co-op and it includes coverage for residential treatment for up to a year, and 2) this hospital has a residential treatment unit for late adolescents and young adults. You are working as a counselor at the Residential Treatment facility where Oscar has been placed. He will be here for a minimum of 6 months and as long as one year. Professional staff at this facility includes 3 counselors, an addictions counselor, a social worker (currently on maternity leave), a psychologist, and 2 nurses on every shift. Oscar’s psychiatrist is also on staff and will continue to follow his care.

The social worker usually coordinates clients’ treatment plans; however she is currently away on maternity leave so you will be the lead therapist who is coordinating Oscar’s treatment during the next 45 days. Once she returns, you will collaborate with her for developing Oscar’s post-residential treatment and resources for him and his family.

Self Esteem homework help

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“Tim Gunn And A Leaky Shower: Welcome To My Life Little Guy

“Tim Gunn And A Leaky Shower: Welcome To My Life Little Guy

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Below Are The Questions Based On The Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Video.

Below Are The Questions Based On The Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Video.

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Psychology homework help

Psychology homework help

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Parenting Dynamics – The Family Crucible – Brice Family homework help

Parenting Dynamics – The Family Crucible – Brice Family homework help

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Psych 635 Ethics In Condiditoning Research

Psych 635 Ethics In Condiditoning Research

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Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory assignment help

Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory assignment help

The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in Counseling

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Article Critique Paper In APA Format assignment help

Article Critique Paper In APA Format assignment help

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Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

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PAYMENT METHODS

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Archive

Archive for year: 2024

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Below Are The Questions Based On The Blue Eyes/Brown Eyes Video.

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Counseling Theory- Psychoanalytic Theory assignment help

The Place of Techniques and Evaluation in Counseling

Techniques of Therapy

Applications of the Approaches

Contributions to Multicultural Counseling

Limitations in Multicultural Counseling

Contributions of the Approaches

Overview of Contemporary Counseling Models

Ego-Defense Mechanisms

Comparison of Freud’s Psychosexual Stages and Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

The Basic Philosophies

Key Concepts

Goals of Therapy

The Therapeutic Relationship

Limitations of the Approaches

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Article Critique Paper In APA Format assignment help

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Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

Case Study Treatment Plan: The Assessment Process

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DISCLAIMER

PAYMENT METHODS

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