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Week 2: Application Assignment

Week 2: Application Assignment

& P a r t IV

VarIatIons and ConClusIons

Variations on the Case study Method

role-Plays

A large number of work situations, including many that lend themselves to use as case studies, can be adapted to role-playing situations in which individuals assume certain positions and act out a problem and attempt to find a mutually agreeable solu- tion. The following is an example of a potential case (not from the 100 presented in this book) adapted to a role-playing exercise.

“it’s a Policy” The setting is an 82-bed hospital located in a small city. One day, an employee of the maintenance department asked his manager,

Mr. Mann, for an hour or two off in which to take care of some personal business. Mann agreed, and asked the employee to stop at the garden equipment shop and buy several lawnmower parts the department needed.

While transacting business in a local bank, the employee was seen by Mr. Carter who supervised both personnel and payroll for the hospital and was in the bank on hospital business. Carter asked the employee what he was doing there and was told the visit was personal.

Upon returning to the hospital, Carter examined the employee’s time card. The man had not punched out to indicate when he had left the hospital. Carter noted the time the employee returned, and after the normal working day he marked the card to indicate an absence of 2 hours on personal business. Carter advised the admin- istrator, Mrs. Arnold, of what he had done, citing a longstanding policy (in their dusty and infrequently used policy and procedure manual) requiring an employee to punch out when leaving the premises on personal business. Mrs. Arnold agreed with Carter’s action.

Carter advised Mann of the action and stated that the employee would not be paid for the 2 hours he was gone.

Mann was angry. He said he had told the employee not to punch out because he had asked him to pick up some parts on his trip. Carter replied that Mann had no business doing what he had done and that it was his—Mann’s—poor management that caused the employee’s loss.

Mann appealed to Mrs. Arnold to reopen the matter based on his claim that there was an important side to the story that she had not yet heard. Arnold agreed to hear both managers state their positions.

the role Positions Mann: You feel strongly that the employee should be paid for the 2 hours. You led him to believe he would be paid, and you also feel that in spite of the time spent on personal business, it was time well used because it saved you a trip out of the hospital.

Carter: You believe in the policy, and you feel that the action sanctioned by Mann was contrary to the policy.

Arnold: Listen thoroughly to both Mann’s and Carter’s statements of position. Work with them in an attempt to develop a mutually acceptable solution to the present problem and to also provide a way to prevent the problem from recurring.

Variations on the Case Study Method 301

302 Part IV: Variations and Conclusions

Any “solution” to the foregoing may well hinge upon whoever best states his position, as well as on how the administrator relates individually to both Mann and Carter and how she interprets the policy and its value herself. About the only near certainty that can be predicted is a decision to revisit the “dusty and infrequently used policy and procedure manual” for possible revision and updating.

Role-playing exercises can be of considerable help in zeroing in on the key dif- ficulties in a given situation and providing experience in hammering out solutions that require some measure of compromise.

Group responses to Questions

A frequently helpful group activity involves a number of managers—for example, the attendees at a management development session—providing their individual responses to a question, with these responses then woven into a comprehensive response. Usu- ally provided by instructor or discussion leader, a comprehensive response merges the individual responses, weeds out the inevitable duplications, and sets forth a range of reasonable approaches to the problem presented by the question.

Each question, so employed, is initially asked by a working first-line or middle manager, so each represents a problem actually experienced by a manager on the job. Responses are not the answers of a single person, and they are not simply textbook answers. In every instance, the response is developed from suggestions offered by the peers of the manager who raised the question. This is a collaborative approach to management development: the real questions of working managers answered through the pooling of the knowledge and experience of other working managers.

The following is a brief question and the resulting range of potential solutions. “How can I convincingly tell an employee who is ‘never wrong’ that she is, in

fact, undeniably wrong?” First, it is advisable to question the question itself. The employee may give the

impression of forever claiming to be right, and this impression may be properly per- ceived by the manager, but the phrase “never wrong” is likely to be an unwarranted generalization. For that matter, “never” and “always” are risky words to use either in active interpersonal communication or when describing the acts or attitudes of people.

The employee who projects the impression of never being wrong could be self- assured to the extent of overconfidence. This employee may have a strong self-opinion and may take considerable pride in being right. This person may even be aware of truly being wrong, but may be prevented by pride from any admission of wrongdoing.

The manager should try to deal with the person in a way that avoids destroying the individual’s confidence. It is invariably best to focus initially on a specific error or problem rather than dealing with generalities. That is, the manager’s approach should never be, “You’re making too many mistakes.” Rather, the approach should be more on the order of, “Here’s a specific error that we need to talk about.” The manager needs to determine why the employee was wrong and help that person decide what can be done to correct the situation.

As a manager who must deal with such an employee, make certain you do your homework first. Determine beyond any reasonable doubt that the employee is, in fact, wrong and that you have the correct answer. Be certain that you have proof. In all personnel matters, you should avoid acting on hearsay or secondhand information. This is especially important with the employee who would appear to never be wrong; this person usually requires absolute proof of wrongdoing and will take no one else’s word for it.

Back up your criticisms and comments with facts, proven and documented when possible. Factual information so presented is difficult to dispute. When necessary, use specific institutional policies and procedures when they apply. Policies and pro- cedures must have been established in advance and should constitute agreed-upon guidelines for behavior. If you have no absolute proof of wrongdoing in the form of factual information, then attempt to reason with the employee to bring about an understanding of the apparent error.

In dealing with the employee, provide a nonthreatening atmosphere in which you may converse in private, one-on-one. The person who insists on always being right may show obvious rigidity, inflexibility, and resistance to change, and should be dealt with diplomatically. However, the person’s tendencies may simply display a basic inability to see more than one side of a question or more than one possible answer.

In dealing with the employee who is never wrong, consider the following:

• Open on a positive note. Do not begin by tossing the error back in the employee’s face. Rather, begin by emphasizing the individual’s positive attributes (good employee, hard worker, always punctual, etc.) and dispense some reasonable praise before attempting to zero in on what may appear to be an inability to take criticism. As in many activities consisting of multiple steps, rarely has everything been done wrong; point out the correct elements of the employee’s approach. You should be interested in conveying the belief that you are not “out to get” the employee. You want to convince the person that accomplishing the work of the department is a cooperative undertaking in which everyone must take part.

• Be tactful and understanding. Nobody can expect to be 100 percent right 100 percent of the time. In dealing with the individual who has difficulty admitting fault, you may have to be gentle and tactful to avoid affecting the individual’s confidence or avoid a defensive reaction. Also, you need to let the person know that if there are personal problems affecting his or her work, you are available to listen if that is the employee’s wish. Do not bring up past mistakes, but concentrate on dealing with only one current problem.

• Stress mutual understanding and cooperation. Convey your belief in the value of collaborating on ideas and bringing misunderstandings out into the open so they may be dealt with by all concerned. Perhaps the current solution to the problem of the moment would be of value to a number of people in the work group. Make it plain that you are looking for some common ground on which

Variations on the Case Study Method 303

304 Part IV: Variations and Conclusions

the two of you can agree and for a chance that both of you will eventually see the situation in the same general way. Strive for compromise, recognizing that it may be necessary for each of you to give something to obtain something in return.

• Listen carefully. Listen to all of the employee’s views and the reasons for doing what was done. Remember that in the mind of the employee, no mis- take was made and no wrong was done. Should you find it necessary to draw conclusions and relate them to the employee, ask for the person’s impressions of your conclusions. Be sure to question what you do not understand, listen carefully, and probe for reasons conveyed in what the employee is saying.

• Use facts and examples. If you must plainly point out that the employee has been wrong, get all of your facts, put them in order, and logically demonstrate what went wrong and how it should be corrected. If the problem involves job performance and there are established standards for the job, compare the actual results with the standards and explain why the difference is unaccept- able. Noting that nobody is right all of the time, do not be reluctant to provide examples from your own experience. Use specific examples, and draw paral- lels using your performance and the performance of others to provide insight. Ask direct questions and listen carefully to the responses.

• Participate in problem solving. Unless there are only two possible resolutions to a situation (and rarely are there only two alternatives), you may be able to get the employee to understand that there may be multiple solutions that work, but only one or two that are acceptable for various reasons. You may be able to point out that the employee’s approach is acceptable under certain circum- stances, but for specific reasons a particular answer is most appropriate. Offer alternatives—again, the notion of compromise—when that is possible, and never just say that the employee is wrong and let it go at that without explain- ing why and what the correct approach should have been. Of course if there are only two possibilities, then it may have to come down to saying, “One of us is wrong.” However, if it is indeed the employee who is wrong, your use of managerial authority to dictate what is right should be the last resort.

• Communicate openly. Attempt to be supportive. Exercise empathy, imagining yourself in the employee’s place. Explore any possibilities for misinterpreta- tion or misunderstanding in the employee’s work instructions. While doing so, be alert for signs that indicate defensiveness on the part of the employee or suggest a shutdown of communication. Do not argue with the employee and do not try too hard to rationalize or defend the position you see as the right one. A view that is truly correct will usually survive attack without requir- ing active defense. Always leave room for discussion, keeping in mind that you are aiming for a point at which you can say, “Now we both understand.” Although it may seem to be your intention, you are not actively looking for the chance to say, “Now you see it my way.”

• Follow up. In dealing with the employee who is never wrong, you will prob- ably accomplish little in only one interchange. You may have to exercise

patience and go through the process multiple times, focusing each time on a new specific problem, to stand any chance of changing the employee’s work habits and attitude. Recognize, however, that as manager you may eventually have to insist on things being done in the way you believe is correct. Also, as follow-up, retain some documentation of your contacts for a while. It may not be necessary to enter the documentation in the employee’s personnel file— unless circumstances have reached a state in which formal corrective action is necessary—but you should be able, for both your sake and the employee’s, to produce a record of discussions that have taken place.

Is there quite a lot to consider in the foregoing? Certainly, but not all of the advice provided will apply in every situation. So much was said by the managers who responded to the question that the reader may be left thinking that an inordi- nate amount of time and effort would have to be devoted to every employee who behaves in that particular manner. Not so; there are many factors that enter into a manager’s relationship with each individual employee, and it is the whole person and that individual’s overall cooperativeness and productivity that will dictate the amount of attention the manager must invest in the relationship.

What you Can Gain throuGh the Case study Method

Practice, Practice

The conscientious use of case studies and similar activities provides practice in ana- lyzing problems and making decisions. Certainly a case is not the “real world,” so true decision-making pressures and emotional involvement in the decision situation are missing (although adding a time constraint can contribute a certain amount of pressure, as experienced, for example, by students who are given a specific block of time to complete an examination). Yet there is a plus side to even these apparent shortcomings of the case method: One can practice decision-making techniques with- out the risk of damage occurring through an occasional “wrong” decision.

Because a real world decision includes personal involvement, potential conse- quences, and often the pressure of time, a case study cannot simulate all of the moves required in making and implementing a decision. However, a case study allows you to go through some of the necessary moves and thus more closely parallels reality than does a simple recounting of rules or principles. In one especially important way, decision making is like many other human endeavors: The more you practice, the more proficient you become.

a new Problem-solving outlook

Although a case is not reality, it nevertheless demonstrates the complexity of the real decision-making environment. Addressing a case requires you to retreat from theory

What You Can Gain through the Case Study Method 305

306 Part IV: Variations and Conclusions

and other abstractions and face the uncertainties of the real world. Through the case study method you learn to make necessary simplifications, to cut through a maze of apparent facts and information and create a working order that you can deal with in a practical way.

No single case ever supplies “all of the facts.” In dealing with a case, just as in pondering many real-life situations, it is always possible to ask “What if . . . ?” Rarely does a manager have “all of the facts” in any but the simplest of situations.

Trying to decide without full knowledge of a situation is often frustrating, but this is an inseparable part of the manager’s task. If there were fewer such frustrations, there would likely be fewer difficult decisions to make, and if there were fewer deci- sions to make, there would most likely be fewer managers required to make them.

In spite of the shortcomings of the case study method, however, conscientiously working your way through a number of case studies can leave you with a new out- look on problem solving. This new outlook may well include your recognition of the need to:

• Thoroughly evaluate all available information and arrange bits of information in some logical order.

• Arrange your information into meaningful patterns or decision alternatives. • Evaluate each alternate according to the objectives to be served by the deci-

sion; and make a choice.

Rarely is there a single “right” solution to a given case. More often than not it is even difficult to say whether one particular answer is better than another. In this respect, however, the case study method supports reality: In real-world situations, what is “right” is usually relative to the conditions of the moment and the needs of the people involved.

The use of the case study method also reminds us of the true role of rules, prin- ciples, and theories. We quickly discover that rules, principles, and theories are but the tools we work with, and not the ends we are trying to serve. We learn to arrange information so we can use our tools as they are needed, rather than attempt to orga- nize our case analyses around the tools. In other words, we learn that theory serves practice—it does not dictate practice.

To help you decide for yourself whether you are getting something from the case study method, try to asses your “answer” to each case you complete according to the following questions:

• Do my recommendations show that I fully understand the issues involved in the case?

• Given the absence of unforeseen circumstances, could my recommendations realistically solve the problem? That is, is what I decided workable given the circumstances?

• Do my recommendations appear to be as fair as possible to all parties involved in the problem?

• Do my recommendations support the goals of the organization rather than the goals of some specific person or group?

• If this were not an exercise but rather a real problem, could I live with my recommendation?

a Broadened View

The advantages of the case study method are never more apparent than when cases are considered by a group of persons working together. The multiple inputs provided by group activity serve as a strong stimulus to creativity. Ideas lead to more ideas; another person may offer an idea that had not occurred to you, and this in turn can lead you to think of something that neither of you had mentioned. Ideas—implications, possibili- ties, variations, what have you—build upon other ideas, and often the thought that leads to a sound solution springs from discussion of peripheral issues or matters of yet-to-be- recognized importance. Much of the time, group consideration of a case reveals more potentially productive alternatives than one person would have generated alone.

Also, different persons viewing the same case will bring different viewpoints to bear. Each of us possesses a unique viewpoint; the sum of our own attitudes, experi- ences, knowledge, and background. We are inclined to view the same problem in different ways; we will see some factors as more important than others because of the way we are put together.

Consider, for example, a problem concerning a request for more housekeep- ing personnel arising during a period when finances are severely constrained. To the finance director the dollar problems may loom as the most significant issue in the overall problem. However, the housekeeping manager, struggling with an over- worked and understaffed crew, is likely to see understaffing as the critical issue. Even without professional involvement in the problem, any two managers from different disciplines may well view matters differently. The same hypothetical problem—the housekeeping staffing situation—may be viewed in two completely different ways by, say, a registered nurse and a laboratory technologist.

Differing views come from different orientations. You alone stand in a unique spot in the organization, so no one else views all things quite the same way you do. No department exists in isolation from all others in the delivery of health care, and there are few kinds of problems that do not cross departmental lines, so the views of a number of people of varying backgrounds usually contribute to the development of more numerous and comprehensive alternatives.

Group participation in case study activity also points up the need for compro- mise in problem solving. Again reminded that few activities and few problems in a healthcare organization are isolated from each other, any decision rendered usually has to accommodate more than one particular interest. We find that our need becomes not that of developing the “best” solution, one that may be “best” logically and eco- nomically, although it may serve the desires of but one interested party, but rather developing a solution that is fair and workable overall, one that serves the objectives of the organization rather than the desires of an individual.

What You Can Gain through the Case Study Method 307

308 Part IV: Variations and Conclusions

the Benefits of the Case study Method

In summary, the case study method of learning provides the following:

• Practice in idea generation and creative problem solving • Familiarization with logical problem-solving processes • Broadened perspective, owing to the sharing of ideas and viewpoints with others • Encouragement in developing the habit of approaching problems analytically • Some limited “practice” in solving problems and making decisions

As noted elsewhere in this book, the case study approach is only one of several methods available for presenting management development material. No manager’s continuing education should rely 100 percent on the case method; many necessities— specific rules, principles, and techniques, for instance—are best acquired by other means. However, the case method has characteristics that make it worth consider- ation as a significant part of a manager’s continuing education: It calls for the active involvement of the manager in the learning process, and it significantly narrows the gap between theory and practice.

ColleCtinG your oWn Cases

Material is Where you find it

One excellent source of material for original cases is your own experience. Many items suitable for case presentation can be found in experiences you have had in your present position and jobs you have held in the past.

Hardly a day goes by in which each working manager could not point to at least one or two instances that could be written up as cases. Such events involve all of us day in and day out. However, most potential cases slide by us unrecognized; only the truly troublesome matters remain clearly in mind after the fact. Of course the big problems, those we remember clearly, make excellent cases, but so do many of the lesser matters we regularly deal with and forget.

If you want to collect case material, your conscious decision to do so will prob- ably remind you to remain alert for opportunities. When something happens that may later make a useful case, make note of it, briefly but in sufficient detail to allow you to recall the incident when you need to do so.

Even a relatively new manager’s brief experience, say 3 or 4 months, can furnish many useful cases. None of these cases may be truly original as far as the issues they involve are concerned, but each is likely to have unique implications.

Remaining with your experience for a moment, another excellent source of case material—quite likely the best available source—is your mistakes, those perhaps painful occasions when you “learned the hard way.” If you made a mistake, recog- nized that you erred, and benefitted from the experience, then it is likely that you

have the issues clearly in mind. It is also likely that you know something about the cause of the error, why the mistake was indeed a mistake.

You may also find case material in your observations of the actions of other people, people you have worked for, those who have reported to you, and others whose working lives have touched yours. You can use secondhand information as well, stories of the experiences of other managers.

You can also fabricate cases completely from scratch. Start with a basic question, especially one on the order of “What should I do if . . . ?” and build a brief tale that describes the problem acted out rather than expressed as a question. Many of the ques- tions a manager might raise in the course of a day can be used in this fashion. In fact, a few of the cases presented in this book were generated in this fashion. If a manager asks, for example, “What can I do with an ordinarily good employee who will not take orders from one particular head nurse?” you can surely make up a two- or three-paragraph “short story” featuring an employee’s unwillingness to respond to a supervisor’s orders.

fact in fictional form

When writing up cases based on actual events, be sure to fictionalize your material. Write in such a way that no actual person can be identified. Do not name specific orga- nizations known to you—especially your own organization—and never describe an actual organization, department, or other setting so accurately that the people involved can be identified without being named. Make up names for your characters, and you should indeed consider them to be characters, just as though you were writing fiction.

Invent names for institutions, and consider altering institutional characteristics such as size, affiliation, and elements of organizational structure to further obscure the source of your material.

If an actual happening you would like to use as a case proves to be unique, so odd, unusual, or dramatic that the participants could still be identified no matter how they were disguised, then forget it. It is better to let an even excellent example go unused than to run the risk of invading someone’s privacy.

For each case you write you should be able to pose the central issue, the main problem or topic of the case, in the form of a relatively concise question. For exam- ple, the question “How can I get an employee to do a particular task when this person thinks I should really be doing it myself?” advances the central issue of Case 33, “It’s His Job, Not Mine.” Having thus clearly identified the central issue, proceed to weave your fictional tale to show the development of the problem in a brief scene (as opposed to simply restating the question).

The following are a few more samples of the kinds of questions that lend them- selves to the creation of cases:

• “How should I handle an employee who becomes disturbed and resentful when reprimanded?”

• “What should I do with an employee who continues to repeat mistakes after having been spoken to about them several times?”

Collecting Your Own Cases 309

310 Part IV: Variations and Conclusions

• “What can I do with an employee who I know can do better but refuses to try?”

• “How should I deal with an employee who behaves flippantly over an error that is potentially quite serious?”

• “How can I get higher management to follow through on problems that des- perately need attention?”

• “How can I keep myself from being trapped in the middle when dealing with two different bosses?”

The supply of questions that lend themselves to the development of case studies is essentially endless. In addition to capturing questions that occur to you person- ally, you need only to listen to employees, managers, customers, visitors, and others. Everyone has questions from time to time, and many questions, properly simplified, can become cases.

Keeping it simple

Simplify your material, sticking to just those things you need to develop the issue at the heart of the case appropriately. In none but the most elementary of management problems can we hope to capture all of the available information; in most instances we cannot do so without generating cases that are far too long and complicated for practical use. This is especially true of problems concerning people. There are many sides to most people problems, and much of the available information is subjective.

Sticking to the central issue, provide a few pertinent facts. Also, if you believe it would be helpful—as it usually is in cases involving people problems—insert a few words of observation or insight relative to a person’s characteristics or manner of behavior. A bit of character description can provide the user of the case with some insight into the kinds of human relations problems that might be involved.

In general, the depth of information used in a case should be such that the reader can clearly identify the central issue and deal with that issue while filling in minor information gaps with reasonable assumptions.

The first case or two that you write may perhaps take more time than you believe the process is worth. You may find, however, that writing cases is much like using cases—and in fact much like making decisions—in that your performance improves with practice. The more you do, the better you become at doing it.

PART IV VARIATIONS AND CONCLUSIONS
- VARIATIONS ON THE CASE STUDY METHOD
  - ROLE-PLAYS
  - GROUP RESPONSES TO QUESTIONS
- WHAT YOU CAN GAIN THROUGH THE CASE STUDY METHOD
  - PRACTICE, PRACTICE
  - A NEW PROBLEM-SOLVING OUTLOOK
  - A BROADENED VIEW
- THE BENEFITS OF THE CASE STUDY METHOD
- COLLECTING YOUR OWN CASES
  - MATERIAL IS WHERE YOU FIND IT
  - FACT IN FICTIONAL FORM
  - KEEPING IT SIMPLE

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Working As A School Psychologist With Children From Divorce Family

Working As A School Psychologist With Children From Divorce Family

Book Reviews – Comptes rendus 633

Divorce Shock: Perspectives on Counselling and Therapy Edited by Adrian R. Tiemann, Bruce L. Danto, and Steve Vinton Gullo

Reviewed by LEE HANDY, The University of Calgary, University Counselling Services

The fact that divorce has been normative within North American society has not for some time been a contentious issue. There remains, however, a great diversity in the reactions to divorce both by the public at large and relevant health professionals. What is not in question is that divorce, with near univer- sality, has a very significant impact on both society and individuals. In recent years the number of useful resources in the literature dealing with such issues as the impact of divorce on children, divorce and self-esteem, therapeutic programs for recovery from divorce for both parents and children, and concerns regarding subsequent marriages and relationships have increased both in quantity and quality. By the same token, if one looks at the more recent books in the area of marital therapy and family therapy which are often used in the training of psychologists you will find overall very little, if any, space devoted to the issues of divorce.

Divorce Shock enters the professional literature into what, at least to some I’m sure, is a surprisingly uncrowded arena. The majority of books currently available, I would suggest, fall into the pop psychology, self-help category. In reviewing Divorce Shock it is tempting to make comparisons to some of the existing valuable books in the area, however I believe this would be unfair both to them and this particular volume. While Divorce Shock is subtitled Perspectives on Counselling and Therapy and thus might lead readers to believe that they would find within it a major source of “how to do it” clinical information – they would be largely disappointed. The book is in fact what it purports to be; a collection of perspectives on divorce, the divorce process, and interventions aimed at recovery from divorce. This is not to say that there is not reference in some instances to very specific clinical information, but its scope and goal is clearly broader than that. It is in this broader arena of identifying, exploring, and in some cases expanding many of the issues related to divorce, both in the individual and societal context, that this volume offers a great deal.

The book itself is a collection of fifteen papers, really sixteen counting the very extensive introduction, and I believe it has been well organized in terms of the content of the individual papers and their order of presentation. Readers used to a parsimonious and at times even terse research style of writing will have some difficulty in getting past the wordy introduction which contains more than its share of generalizations of a nature which will make an empiricist shudder. The introduction does provide a very good

634 Handy

overview of the rest of the book and allows one to knowledgeably select desired readings from the fifteen chapters which follow.

The first four chapters of this volume provide a context for the subsequent chapters in a way that few books in the area have. Philosophical underpinnings of divorce and grief, divorce trends from both a societal and personal experience perspective, and divorce from a particular clinical socio- logical perspective represent the broad ranging areas of the first three chapters. The fourth chapter focusses on the issue of betrayal as a major component of the divorce experience while exploring its role in a variety of other contexts.

Beginning with chapter five the topics become somewhat more focussed. Chapter five presents not only information as to what courts may or may not do, but explores their role in the continuing relationship of the soon-to-be ex-spouses. Chapter six reports largely survey data as to how ex-spouses respond to the death of a divorced spouse. The information provided in this chapter may well better prepare clinicians for dealing with this increasing phenomenon. Chapter seven returns to a somewhat more multi-level analysis in terms of looking at the psychological, cultural and political considerations of women who are divorcing. This chapter goes considerably and usefully beyond the usual information which indicates that the impact of divorce is gender related. Helping professionals are challenged to examine their own attitudes as they relate to specific modes of intervention which are suggested as beneficial. This chapter in particular struck me as a useful integration of both therapeutic, developmental, gender and crisis areas of knowledge as they relate to individual responses to divorce. Chapter eight deals with an overview of grief as a major component in separation and divorce in a very brief but competent fashion. Chapter nine deals with divorce and the loss of self by defining four stages of a possible intervention in a very brief manner which I believe many readers will find somewhat lacking in desired specificity. Chapter ten is also a very brief chapter looking at the idea of the perfect couple as often a much more apparent than real phenomenon. The concepts raised in this context regarding co-dependency and subsequent disillusionment, while thought-provoking, are not dealt with extensively enough to leave the reader satisfied. Chapter eleven uses a variety of case examples to explore divorce and depression in a manner which emphasizes its context within the broader area of dealing with loss. A strong message is presented here that practitioners working in the area of divorce need to be at least competent, if not experts, in dealing with such directly related areas as depression, which is either precipitated by or combined with divorce in a manner that often raises the possible question of suicide risk.

Chapter twelve is written in an effective first person style dealing with a particular therapeutic approach to the “therapy and management” of the shock of the loss of a love relationship. A particular intervention is generally described which is designed to facilitate moving through the stages of loss or grief in the most proactive manner possible. Chapter thirteen, entitled “Love, Loss and Divorce: The Risk of Suicide”, 1 believe to be clearly the weakest,

Book Reviews – Comptes rendus 635

but fortunately also the shortest chapter in the volume. We arc presented a post-hoc analysis of Marilyn Monroe in a manner which, compared with other resources available in the literature, offers little. Chapters fourteen and fifteen go together very well. Chapter fourteen examines in some detail the notion of divorce as betrayal in a manner quite different, and yet complemen- tary, with that presented in chapter four. Central to a significant portion of this material is the concept of “projecrive identification”, which is also utilized in chapter fifteen and quite interestingly examines divorce within the context of the original complementary patterns of relationship interaction which lead to the attraction of the partners in the first place. This chapter provides both a brief theoretical overview as well as an annotated transcript of therapy with a selected couple.

In summary, I believe this book’s greatest value to most psychologists may well be perceived by many as its greatest weakness. It provides a variety of perspectives in a manner and from a point of view that is not the everyday fare of most psychologists. It leans heavily on psychoanalytic foundations and lacks specificity that many psychological practitioners might generally desire. As a stimulus to widen our perspectives beyond what becomes in practice often a very narrow focus, I believe the book Divorce Shock overall to be a valuable addition to the literature.

Submitted June 16,1993 Accepted June 21, 1993

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Answer Questions About “Footloose” Movie

February 9, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Answer Questions About “Footloose” Movie

“Footlosse” Project After reading over these questions, watch the movie “Footloose.” You can watch the original 1984 version, or the 2011 remake. The movie is available on YouTube, Google Play, iTunes, Amazon Prime, etc.

Answer 10 of the following questions. Each question is worth 3.5 points. It is very important that you provide the justification for your responses when the question requests a justification. Your answers will probably vary from question to question, but on average, half page answers should be sufficient. 1. What perspective or definition of adolescence is best portrayed in the movie? Provide evidence and

your rationale. (introduction of textbook) 2. Identify a character who appears to have matured early and a character who matured late. Name and

describe the two characters (especially if they were not central characters) and provide the rationale for why you believe he or she matured early or late. (Chapter 1)

3. Identify at least two examples of formal operational thought. For each, provide a description of the

scene or event and provide a justification for why you think it is an illustration of formal operational thought. (Chapter 2)

4. Identify at least two examples of personal fable or imaginary audience in the movie. For each, (1)

provide a description of the scene or event, (2) state whether you think it illustrates the personal fable or the imaginary audience, and (3) provide a justification for why you think so. (chapter 2)

5. There are a number of examples of behavior that may be viewed as attempts to define one’s identity.

Identify two and provide the rationale for why you think the behavior is an attempt to identify one’s identity. (chapter 8)

6. How would Baumrind classify the parenting style used by the male lead character’s mother? The

female lead character’s father? For each, provide evidence to support your conclusion. (Chapter 4) 7. The parents of both main characters engage in autonomy granting behaviors, but do so in a very

different way. Contrast how the male lead’s mother goes about granting him autonomy with the approach taken by the female lead’s father. (chapter 9)

8. Identify at least two examples of peer pressure. For each, provide a description of the scene or event,

provide a justification for why you think there was peer pressure, and identify how the pressure was conveyed (was it verbal, imagined, etc.). (chapters 5 and 9)

9. Identify at least two pieces of evidence of peer group structure in the movie. What does the evidence

tell you about the structure of the peer groups in that town/school? (chapter 5) 10. Identify a theme that captures how adolescent sexuality is portrayed in the movie and provide evidence

that supports your theme choice. (chapter 11) 11. Identify at least 3 scenes addressing intimacy and intimacy development in relationships and explain

why the scene accurately or inaccurately depicts intimacy development. You must include at least one example of intimacy in a romantic context, and at least one in a friendship context. (chapter 10)

12. Several characters in the movie engage in problem behavior. Identify at least three examples of

different types of problem behavior exhibited by the characters. For each, discuss key causes and consequences of the behavior (embedded within the movie plot, if possible, but you are not limited to the plot for discussion of potential causes and consequences. (chapter 13)

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Choice Theory Within Reality Therapy

February 9, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Choice Theory Within Reality Therapy

PSYCHIATRY PERSPECTIVE ARTICLE

published: 06 May 2013 doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00031

Addiction and choice: theory and new data Gene M. Heyman*

Department of Psychology, Boston College, Boston, MA, USA

Edited by: Hanna Pickard, University of Oxford, UK

Reviewed by: Serge H. Ahmed, CNRS, France Bennett Foddy, University of Oxford, UK

*Correspondence: Gene M. Heyman, Department of Psychology, McGuinn Hall, Boston College, Boston, MA 02467, USA. e-mail: heymang@bc.edu; gheyman@harvard.fas.edu

Addiction’s biological basis has been the focus of much research. The findings have per- suaded experts and the public that drug use in addicts is compulsive. But the word “compulsive” identifies patterns of behavior, and all behavior has a biological basis, includ- ing voluntary actions. Thus, the question is not whether addiction has a biology, which it must, but whether it is sensible to say that addicts use drugs compulsively. The relevant research shows most of those who meet the American Psychiatric Association’s criteria for addiction quit using illegal drugs by about age 30, that they usually quit without professional help, and that the correlates of quitting include legal concerns, economic pressures, and the desire for respect, particularly from family members. That is, the correlates of quitting are the correlates of choice not compulsion. However, addiction is, by definition, a disorder, and thereby not beneficial in the long run. This is precisely the pattern of choices predicted by quantitative choice principles, such as the matching law, melioration, and hyperbolic dis- counting. Although the brain disease model of addiction is perceived by many as received knowledge it is not supported by research or logic. In contrast, well established, quantitative choice principles predict both the possibility and the details of addiction.

Keywords: addiction, choice theory, remission, correlates of recovery, brain disease model

INTRODUCTION Addictive drugs change the brain, genetic studies show that alco- holism has a substantial heritability, and addiction is a persistent, destructive pattern of drug use (e.g., Cloninger, 1987; American Psychiatric Association, 1994; Robinson et al., 2001). In scien- tific journals and popular media outlets, these observations are cited as proof that “addiction is a chronic, relapsing brain dis- ease, involving compulsive drug use” (e.g., Miller and Chappel, 1991; Leshner, 1999; Lubman et al., 2004; Quenqua, 2011). Yet, research shows that addiction has the highest remission rate of any psychiatric disorder, that most addicts quit drugs without professional help, and that the correlates of quitting are those that attend most decisions, such as financial and familial con- cerns (e.g., Biernacki, 1986; Robins, 1993; Stinson et al., 2005; Klingemann et al., 2010). However, addiction is “disease-like” in the sense that it persists even though on balance its costs outweigh the benefits (e.g., most addicts eventually quit). Thus, in order to explain addiction, we need an account of voluntary behav- ior that predicts the persistence of activities that from a global bookkeeping perspective (e.g., long-term) are irrational. That is, addiction is not compulsive drug use, but it also is not rational drug use. Several empirical choice principles predict the possi- bility of relatively stable yet suboptimal behavior. They include the matching law, melioration, and hyperbolic discounting (e.g., Herrnstein, 1990; Ainslie, 1992). These principles were discov- ered in the course of experiments conducted in laboratories and natural settings, and in experiments these same principles also distinguish addicted from non-addicted drug users (e.g., Kirby et al., 1999). For example, ex and current heavy drug users were more likely to suboptimally “meliorate” than were non-addicts in a choice procedure that invited both long-term maximizing and

melioration (Heyman and Dunn, 2002). Thus, we have on hand a research based, non-disease account of the defining features of addiction, which is to say its destructive and irrational aspects. As this essay is based on how those we call addicts behave, it would be most efficient to begin with a brief summary of key aspects of the natural history of addiction.

LIKELIHOOD OF REMISSION AND TIME COURSE OF ADDICTION Figure 1 shows the cumulative frequency of remission as a func- tion of the onset of dependence in a nation-wide representative sample of addicts (United States, Lopez-Quintero et al., 2011). The researchers first recruited a sample of more than 42,000 indi- viduals whose demographic characteristics approximated those of the US population for individuals between the ages of 18 and 64 (Grant and Dawson, 2006). The participants were interviewed according to a questionnaire designed to produce an APA diagno- sis when warranted. For those who currently or in the past met the criteria for “substance dependence” (the APA’s term for addic- tion), there were additional questions aimed at documenting the time course of clinically significant levels of drug use. Figure 1 summarizes the findings regarding remission and the duration of dependence.

On the x-axis is the amount of time since the onset of depen- dence. On the y -axis is the cumulative frequency of remission, which is the proportion of individuals who met the criteria for lifetime dependence but for the past year or more had been in remission. The fitted curves are negative exponentials, based on the assumption that each year the likelihood of remitting remained constant, independent of the onset of dependence (Heyman, 2013).

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FIGURE 1 | The cumulative frequency of remission as a function of time since the onset of dependence, based on Lopez-Quintero et al.’s (2011) report. The proportion of addicts who quit each year was approximately constant. The smooth curves are based on the negative exponential equations listed in the figure.

The cumulative frequency of remission increased each year for each drug. Indeed, the theoretical lines so closely approximated the observations that the simplest account is that each year a constant proportion of those who had not yet remitted did so regardless of how long they had been addicted. By year 4 (since the onset of dependence) half of those who were ever addicted to cocaine had stopped using cocaine at clinically significant levels; for marijuana the half-life of dependence was 6 years; and for alcohol, the half- life of dependence was considerably longer, 16 years. As the typical onset age for dependence on an illicit drug is about 20 (Kessler et al., 2005a), the results say that most people who become addicted to an illicit drug are “ex-addicts” by age 30. Of course, addicts may switch drugs rather than quit drugs, but other considerations indi- cate that this does not explain the trends displayed in Figure 1. For example, dependence on any illicit drug decreases markedly as a function of age, which would not be possible if addicts were switching from one drug to another (Heyman, 2013).

The graph also shows that there is much individual variation. Among cocaine users, about 5% continued to meet the criteria for addiction well into their 40s; among marijuana users, about 8% remained heavy users well into their 50s, and for alcoholics, more than 15% remained heavy drinkers well into their 60s. Thus, for both legal and illegal drugs some addicts conform to the expecta- tions of the “chronic disease” label. However, as noted below, the correlates of quitting drugs are the correlates of decision making, not the correlates of the diseases addiction is said to be similar to.

CAN WE TRUST THE DATA? The results in Figure 1 replicate the findings of previous nation- wide surveys and targeted studies that selected participants so as to obtain representative samples (e.g., Robins and Murphy, 1967; Anthony and Helzer, 1991; Robins, 1993; Warner et al., 1995;

Kessler et al., 2005a,b). For instance, in every national scientific survey of mental health in the United States, most of those who met the criteria for dependence on an illicit drug no longer did so by age 30, and addiction had the highest remission rate of any other psychiatric disorder. However, research on remission faces well-known methodological pitfalls. Those in remission may relapse at some post-interview date, and the subject rosters of the large epidemiological studies may be biased in favor of those addicts who do quit. For instance, addicts who remain heavy drug users may not cooperate with researchers or may be hard to contact because of their life style, illnesses, or have higher mortality rates. These issues have been discussed in some detail elsewhere (Hey- man, 2013). The key results were that remission after age 30 was reasonably stable, and that it was unlikely that there were enough missing or dead addicts to alter significantly the trends displayed in Figure 1.

THE CORRELATES OF QUITTING AND THE ROLE OF TREATMENT The correlates of quitting include the absence of additional psychi- atric and medical problems, marital status (singles stay addicted longer), economic pressures, fear of judicial sanctions, concern about respect from children and other family members, worries about the many problems that attend regular involvement in ille- gal activities, more years spent in school, and higher income (e.g., Waldorf, 1983; Biernacki, 1986; Waldorf et al., 1991; Warner et al., 1995). Put in more personal terms, addicts often say that they quit drugs because they wanted to be a better parent, make their own parents proud of them, and not further embarrass their fam- ilies (e.g., Premack, 1970; Jorquez, 1983). In short, the correlates of quitting are the practical and moral concerns that affect all major decisions. They are not the correlates of recovery from the diseases addiction is said to be like, such as Alzheimer’s, schizo- phrenia, diabetes, heart disease, cancer, and so on (e.g., Leshner, 1999; McLellan et al., 2000; Volkow and Li, 2004).

Much of what we know about quitting drugs has been pro- vided by researchers who study addicts who are not in treatment (e.g., Klingemann et al., 2010). This is because most addicts do not seek treatment. For instance, in the survey that provided the data for Figure 1, only 16% of those who currently met the crite- ria for dependence were in treatment, and treatment was broadly defined so as to include self-help organizations as well as services by trained clinicians (Stinson et al., 2005). Since most addicts quit, the implication is that most addicts quit without professional help. Research supports this logic (e.g., Fiore et al., 1993).

A NON-DISEASE ETIOLOGY FOR PERSISTENT SELF-DESTRUCTIVE DRUG USE Although self-destructive, irrational behavior can be a sign of pathology, it need not be. The self-help industry is booming, which reflects the tendency of so many of us to procrastinate, overeat, skip exercising, and opt for whatever is most convenient. Why buy a book or go to a lecture on how to improve your life if you did not realize that (1) you were behaving imprudently, (2) knew you probably could change, but (3) so far have not taken the requisite steps. Similarly, human irrationality drives the story-line of most novels, memoirs, movies, and plays. Agamemnon sacrifices his

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own daughter to advance his political and personal goals but then publicly embarrasses Achilles his most powerful and skillful war- rior. Both actions are selfish, and the second undermines the goals of the first, which anyone could have foretold. However, Homer is portraying human nature not writing a psychiatric text. Thus, it seems fair to say that who cite selfishness and myopic choices as evidence of pathology (e.g., “she has to be sick because she bought drugs rather than groceries”) naively misread human nature.

In support of the poet’s as opposed to the brain disease account of human nature, behavioral psychologists and economists have discovered principles that predict self-defeating, selfish patterns of behavior. They include “hyperbolic discounting,” “melioration,” and the “matching law” (Herrnstein, 1970, 1990; Rachlin and Green, 1972; Ainslie, 1992; Rachlin, 2007). These are quantitative, empirical laws of choice that predict how different species, includ- ing humans, choose between different commodities and activities, such as food, water, and exercise. Their relevance to addiction and other self-defeating behaviors is that under some conditions they predict relatively stable yet suboptimal patterns of behavior. For example, Heyman and Herrnstein (1986) arranged an experiment in which the matching predicted the lowest possible rate of rein- forcement. As predicted the subjects shifted to matching, lowering their overall reinforcement rate as they did so. This finding has been replicated numerous times (e.g., Herrnstein et al., 1997), and it is analogous as to what happens as drug use turns into addiction.

Or, put another way, general principles that apply to everyday choices, also predict compulsive-like consumption patterns that are consistent with the behavior of addicts.

These choice laws reflect a basic, but often overlooked property, of most choice situations. There is more than one “optimal” strat- egy (Heyman, 2009). One is optimal from the perspective of the most immediate circumstances, such as the current values of the options, taking into account just the most pressing needs and goals. The others are optimal in terms of wider time horizons and the perspectives of others. For example, in settings in which current choices affect the values of future options, it is possible for the cur- rent best choice to be the worst long-term choice (e.g., Herrnstein et al., 1993; Heyman and Dunn, 2002). This is relevant because a common feature of addictive drugs is that they provide immediate benefits but delayed costs. Thus, it is possible that the drug is the best choice when the frame of reference is restricted to the current values of the immediately available options but the worst choice when the frame of reference expands to include future costs and other people’s needs. According to this account, persistent drug use reflects the workings of a local optimum, whereas controlled drug use or abstinence reflects the workings of a global optimum. Put somewhat differently, whether or not drug use persists depends on the factors that influence decision making, particularly values that emphasize global as opposed to a local frame of reference (e.g., values related to family, the future, one’s reputation, and so on). Scores of studies support this analysis (e.g., Waldorf, 1983; Biernacki, 1986; Mariezcurrena, 1994; Klingemann et al., 2010).

OLD CLINICAL FOLLOW-UP STUDIES: EMPIRICAL SUPPORT FOR THE DISEASE ACCOUNT Imagine that what we knew about addiction was restricted to those individuals who make up the right-hand tails of the cumulative

distribution curves in Figure 1. We would have good reason to believe that addiction is a chronic relapsing disease. This is pre- cisely the situation for much of the history of addiction research. Until the mid 1970s virtually all empirical studies of addicts were based on individuals who had been in treatment, which was most often detoxification in American prison/hospitals or similar insti- tutions (e.g., Brecher, 1972; Vaillant, 1973; Maddux and Desmond, 1980; Hser et al., 1993). In some studies virtually all of the partici- pants were males with extensive arrest records, poor work histories, lower than average marriage rates, and lower than average educa- tional achievement (e.g., Vaillant, 1973). That is, the understanding of addiction as a chronic disorder was based on a population of drug users whose demographic characteristics – we now know – match those that predict not quitting (e.g., Klingemann et al., 2010). In the 1960s illicit drug use spread to college campuses and upscale neighborhoods. This new generation of addicts included individuals who were employed, married, and well-educated (e.g., Waldorf et al., 1991). With these demographic changes, the natural history of addiction changed. More often than not, the pressures of family, employment, and the hassles of an illegal life style eventually trumped getting high. Figure 1, which is representa- tive of every major epidemiological study conducted over the past 30 years, reflects this reality; received opinion does not.

BUT DRUGS CHANGE THE BRAIN With the exception of alcohol, addictive drugs produce their bio- logical and psychological changes by binding to specific receptor sites throughout the body. As self-administered drug doses greatly exceed the circulating levels of their natural analogs, persistent heavy drug use leads to structural and functional changes in the nervous system. It is widely – if not universally – assumed that these neural adaptations play a causal role in addiction. In support of this interpretation brain imaging studies often reveal differences between the brains of addicts and comparison groups (e.g., Volkow et al., 1997; Martin-Soelch et al., 2001) However, these studies are cross-sectional and the results are correlations. There are no published studies that establish a causal link between drug-induced neural adaptations and compulsive drug use or even a correlation between drug-induced neural changes and an increase in preference for an addictive drug. For example, in a frequently referred to animal study, Robinson et al. (2001) found dendritic changes in the striatum and the prefrontal cortex of rats who had self-administered cocaine. They concluded that this was a “recipe for addiction.” However, they did not evaluate whether their findings with rodents applied to humans, nor did they even test if the dendritic modifications had anything to do with changes in preference for cocaine in their rats. In principle then it is possible that the drug-induced neural changes play lit- tle or no role in the persistence of drug use. This is a testable hypothesis.

First, most addicts quit. Thus, drug-induced neural plasticity does not prevent quitting. Second, in follow-up studies, which tested Robinson et al.’s claims, there were no increases in prefer- ence for cocaine. For instance in a preference test that provided both cocaine and saccharin, rats preferred saccharin (Lenoir et al., 2007) even after they had consumed about three to four times more cocaine than the rats in the Robinson et al study, and even

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though the cocaine had induced motoric changes which have been interpreted as signs of the neural underpinnings of addiction (e.g., Robinson and Berridge, 2003). Third, Figure 1 shows that the likelihood of remission was constant over time since the onset of dependence. Although this is a surprising result, it is not without precedent. In a longitudinal study of heroin addicts, Vaillant (1973) reports that the likelihood of going off drugs neither increased nor decreased over time (1973), and in a study with rats, Serge Ahmed and his colleagues (Cantin et al., 2010) report that the probability of switching from cocaine to saccharin (which was about 0.85) was independent of past cocaine consumption. Since drugs change the brain, these results suggest that the changes do not prevent quit- ting, and the slope of Figure 1 implies that drug-induced neural changes do not even decrease the likelihood of quitting drugs once dependence is in place.

BUT THERE IS A GENETIC PREDISPOSITION FOR ADDICTION Twin and adoption studies have repeatedly demonstrated a genetic predisposition for alcoholism (e.g., Cloninger, 1987), and the lim- ited amount of research on the genetics of illicit drug use suggests the same for drugs such as heroin, cocaine, and marijuana (Tsuang et al., 2001). However, all behavior has a genetic basis, including voluntary acts. The brain is the organ of voluntary action, and brain structure and development follow the blueprint set by DNA. Thus, there is no necessary connection between heritability and compulsion. In support of this point, monozygotic twins are much more likely to share similar religious and political beliefs than are dizygotic twins, even when they are separated before the age of 1 year old (e.g., Waller et al., 1990; McCourt et al., 1999). That is, learned, voluntary religious and political beliefs have substantial heritabilities just as do many involuntary human characteristics. The relevance to addiction is that a genetic predisposition is not a recipe for compulsion, just as brain adaptations are not a recipe for compulsion.

SUMMING UP Addiction involves an initial “honey moon” period, followed by alternating periods of remission and relapse, and then an eventual return to a more sober life. Most addicts quit using drugs at clinically significant levels, they typically quit without professional help, and in the case of illicit drugs, they typically quit before the age of 30. The correlates of quitting include many of the factors that influence voluntary acts, but not, according to Figure 1, drug exposure once drug use meets the criteria for dependence. Thus, we can say that addiction is ambivalent drug use, which even- tually involves more costs than benefits (otherwise why quit?). Behavioral choice principles predict ambivalent preferences, semi- stable suboptimal behavior patterns, and the capacity to shift from one option to another. In contrast, the brain disease account of addiction fails to predict the high quit rates; it fails to predict the correlates of quitting; it fails to predict the temporal pattern of quitting; and it is tied to unsupportable assumptions, such as the claims that neural adaptations, heritability, and irrationality are prima facie evidence of disease. To be sure “compulsion” and “choice” can be seen as points on a continuum, but Figure 1 and research on quitting make it clear that addiction is not a borderline case.

It is time to think about addiction in terms of what the research shows, particularly the more recent epidemiological studies, and it is time to abandon the medical model of addiction. It does not fit the facts. The matching law, melioration, and hyperbolic discount- ing predict that drugs and similar commodities will become the focus of destructive, suboptimal patterns of behavior. These same choice models also predict that individuals caught in a destruc- tive pattern of behavior retain the capacity to improve their lot and that they will do so as a function of changes in their options and/or how they frame their choices. This viewpoint fits the facts of addiction and provides a practical guide to measures that will actually help addicts change for the better.

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Robinson, T. E., Gorny, G., Mitton, E., and Kolb, B. (2001). Cocaine self-administration alters the mor- phology of dendrites and den- dritic spines in the nucleus accum- bens and neocortex. Synapse 39, 257–266.

Stinson, F. S., Grant, B. F., Dawson, D., Ruan, W. J., Huang, B., and Saha, T. (2005). Comorbidity between DSM- IV alcohol and specific drug use dis- orders in the United States: results from the National epidemiological survey on alcohol and related con- ditions. Drug Alcohol Depend. 80, 105–116.

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Conflict of Interest Statement: The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any com- mercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential con- flict of interest.

Received: 18 March 2013; accepted: 23 April 2013; published online: 06 May 2013. Citation: Heyman GM (2013) Addic- tion and choice: theory and new data. Front. Psychiatry 4:31. doi: 10.3389/fpsyt.2013.00031 This article was submitted to Frontiers in Addictive Disorders and Behavioral Dyscontrol, a specialty of Frontiers in Psychiatry. Copyright © 2013 Heyman. This is an open-access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribu- tion License, which permits use, distrib- ution and reproduction in other forums, provided the original authors and source are credited and subject to any copy- right notices concerning any third-party graphics etc.

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Normal And Abnormal Behavior Scenarios PowerPoint

February 9, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Normal And Abnormal Behavior Scenarios PowerPoint

Normal and Abnormal Behavior Scenarios PowerPoint

To reflect on what you have read or studied so far in a course is an essential part of understanding. This worksheet form will provide a place for you to take some time and reflect on understanding how psychology can help you in your everyday life. Please use this week’s readings to assist you.

As you have learned, your mental health and wellness can affect your life and how you interact with others as a student, professional, and in your personal relationships.

A GCU student learns through the 4 Pillars that physical, mental, and spiritual wellbeing is vital to success in academics in a chosen career field and in life in general. For this assignment you will complete a 7 to 10 slide PowerPoint containing the following information.

· Describe what abnormal and normal behavior is.

· Select two of the four case scenarios which contain examples of potentially abnormal behavior. Next identify the abnormal behaviors in each scenario, what possible mental health diagnosis they may show signs of and how these relate to the facts of these disorders illustrated by The Anxiety and Depression Association of America.

· Please use our other readings for this week as well as videos to assist you.

· Explain three treatment strategies for each scenario that you chose. You must include three to four in-text citations in the body of the power point as well as a reference slide. You may use any of our readings or videos from this week to help illustrate your ideas.

______________________________________________________________________

Jamie Single Mom

Jamie enrolled in the online Bachelors of Science in Psychology program at GCU in the spring of 2011. She is a single mom with two children under the age of 5 and she works a full-time job as a customer service representative.

Jamie is starting to feel overwhelmed with juggling school, work, and spending time with her children. Her physical symptoms are: wanting to cry every day, sometimes being short with her children, withdrawing from friends and family, and being tired and worn out. She is considering quitting school so that her life will return to some normalcy, but then she worries about how she will pay back her student loans when her current job barely covers her bills. Not only that, but she does not want to give up on her dream of becoming a counselor. Jamie feels as though she is in an endless cycle and does not know how to resolve her feelings and physical symptoms. Her negative thought processes have skewed her thinking.

_________________________________________________________________________

John- Anxiety Disorder – Obsessive Compulsive Disorder

John is single and has not worked in sometime. On a daily basis he fears what the day might bring. To make sure that the day goes right he takes 2 showers daily, one after getting up in the morning and one at mid-day. He also makes sure that each household task such as vacuuming, washing dishes, scrubbing the floors, etc is completed by noon every day and marks off these tasks on a checklist. Lastly, at night, he checks his house to make sure all windows and doors are locked. He unlocks and locks the front door at least three (3) times to assure that the lock is working.

John is also going to school, as he knows that he needs to find a job and is hoping to be able to do online computer work when he completes his degree. He is currently struggling with his schoolwork as he has started to obsess about certain routines in it as well, such as double- checking with the instructor every day that he has completed all of his work, posting 5 and 6 times to the classroom, and e-mailing his classmates daily to see if he has missed something. John recognizes that he needs some help, but does not know where to begin.

_________________________________________________________________________

Tim – Young Adult

Tim is finding the freedom of being out on his own exciting and cannot seem to experience enough of his friends and having fun. He is going to school online per his family’s request to “make something of himself.” Although this is the case, he does see the value of going to school and would eventually like to complete a degree in business. He finds himself not completing his schoolwork on time and is considering dropping out, but does not want to let his parents know he is failing. He is feeling anxious about this as he is getting further and further behind. He does not want to give up on having fun with his friends either and is stuck in not knowing how to manage responsibility to his family’s wishes and maintaining a sense of freedom and autonomy.

__________________________________________________________________________

Alice Sleep Disorder – Insomnia

Alice is an executive at a local business and has struggled since her early adulthood with falling asleep most nights. She says that she feels “mentally hyperactive” at bedtime, and is unable to stop the thoughts of the day, especially those issues that were unresolved. She also feels that when she does not get all of her work done for the day that she does not “deserve to go to bed.” Any evening excitement such as a TV show, movie, or a party leaves her unable to quiet herself for hours, which leaves her tossing and turning in bed. Sometimes she finds herself waking up in the middle of the night and her thoughts are again racing about the day’s activities and problems. The lack of sleep leaves her feeling on edge at work the next day with her co-workers and with her fiancé. She has tried sleep-aids, but they make her feel groggy the next day and she does not want to become dependent on them.

_______________________________________________________________________

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Professional Ethics and the Law homework help

February 9, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Professional Ethics and the Law homework help

PSY511 – Professional Ethics and the Law

Multiple Choice Questions (Enter your answers on the enclosed answer sheet)

1. When there is a discussion of “theory” as related to judgments of right and wrong the d iscus- sion is probably one of:

a. philosophical morality

b. professional eth ics

c. philosophical ethics

d. common morality

e. both band d

2. Which of the following is NOT listed in your text as part of the professional structure which governs eth ics for cou nselors?

a. the courts

b. colleges and universities

c. professional organizations that maintain and enforce a mandatory code of ethics

d. professional regulatory bodies that are enforcers of mandatory codes

e. none of the above

3. The BEST place to find up-to-date information of currently accepted ethical practice in the field is:

a. counseling journals

b. the Internet

c. state license boards

d. graduate level textbooks

e. all of the above

4. can be defined as: the extent and limits of activities considered acceptable by

individuals licensed or certified in a profession or specialty.

a. Scope of practice

b. Malpractice

c. Accred itation

d. none of the above

5. Which of the following is the accrediting body for professional counseling?

AMA

AAMFT

NASW

ACA

CACREP

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PSY511 – Professional Ethics and the Law

6. The oldest established mental health profession is:

a. psych iatry

b. social work

c. marriage and family therapy

d. psychiatric nursing

e. psychotherapy

7. Which of the following degrees does NOT indicate legitimate doctoral level training to be a I icensed Psychologist?

a. Ph.D.

b. Ed.D.

c. M.D.

d. Psy.D

8. Which professional organization represents marriage and family therapists?

ACA

AAMFT

APA

ASPS

none of the above

9. Which professional(s) can NOT legitimately, by nature of standard training and practice, per- form psychometric assessment?

a. marriage and family therapist

b. counselor

c. psychologist

d. social worker

e. none of the above

10. The ASPP and ASPS credential applies to which field of mental health specialty?

a. Marriage and family therapy

b. Social work

c. Psychiatry

d. Psychiatric nursing

e. none of the above

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PSY511 – Professional Ethics and the Law

1l. Informed consent generally requires that the counselor should reveal to the client information about:

a. the counselor’s credentials or training.

b. alternative treatments.

c. the potential benefits or detriments of treatment.

d. all of the above

12. A counselor’s primary responsibility is to the:

a. third party referral source.

b. judge who subpoenas a case file.

c. family of a competent adult client seen in individual counseling.

d. professional setting (employer) where the counselor works.

e. none of the above

13. Which of the following IS FALSE?

a. The primary responsibility of the counselor is to the referral source.

b. Nonprofessional counselor-client relationships should be avoided when possible.

c. Services must be fully described and explained to clients before they consent to treat- ment.

d. Sexual intimacy with clients is unethical.

14. Professional competence by definition involves:

a. the quality of provided services

b. informed consent

c. confidential ity

d. boundaries of professional activity

e. both a and d

15. Which of the following statements is TRUE?

a. Counselors can ethically practice any specialty in counseling, even without appropriate specialty training, if it is within the scope of practice of their license.

b. Cottone and Tarvydas believe the terms “dual” and “multiple” relationships should be abandoned.

c. Avoid i ng detrimental relationshi ps with cl ients relates to the eth ical pri nci pie of justice more than non maleficence.

d. People who refuse recommended counseling services must be coerced.

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PSY511 – Professional Ethics and the Law

16. When a judge orders an ex offender to undergo therapy as part of the ex offender’s rehabilita- tion, this is called:

a. expert order of protection

b. legal privilege

c. professional responsibility

d. compulsory therapy

17. The Supreme Court decision in Jaffee v. Redmond provided what type of assistance to psycho- therapists in federal court cases?

a. eliminated their responsibility to testify as expert witnesses

b. upheld their ability to maintain confidential information through assertion of legal privi- lege

c. eliminated their ability to assert privilege in communication with clients

d. instructed counselors that privilege only exists between attorneys and their clients, not between counselors and their clients

18. Which of the following is an example of special circumstances that counselors may be faced with in relation to confidentiality and privilege?

a. counseling persons with HIV/AIDS

b. family/couples counseling

c. clients in drug/alcohol treatment

d. all of the above

19. An exception to confidential ity for psychologists and cou nselors servi ng in the mil itary exists and focuses on which area most clearly?

a. responsi bi lity to report generally negative attitudes of officers and en I isted personnel

b. report threats to military installations, weapons and integrity even when threats to specific persons have not been made

c. to report all counseling activities regardless of the content to their superiors on a regular basis

d. none of the above

20. According to Welch (2003), one of the most common types of malpractice liability in treat- ment services for mental health professionals is:

a. fraudulent billing

b. fam i Iy treatment and forensic situations

c. dual relationships d. group counseling

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PSY511 – Professional Eth ics and the Law

21. According to Arthur and Swanson (1993), clinical records should be written to include which of the following?

a. clear objective statements with behavioral descriptions

b. professional terminology not easily interpreted by legal counsel

c. jargon that does not clearly specify behavioral outcomes

d. little objective information; subjective thoughts of the counselor are of most importance

22. When assessing a client’s potential for harm, Beauchamp and Childress recommend the coun- selor assess primarily which elements?

a. probability of harm

b. magnitude of harm

c. physical vs. psychological nature of harm

d. both a and b are correct

23. Counselor values tend to determine the of counseling.

a. content

b. process

c. level of professionalism

d. lack of progress

24. Client values determine the of counseling.

a. process

b. level of progress

c. content

d. all of the above

25. Objectively applying a system of ethical rules and principles that a counselor may use to deter-

mine a right or moral decision about an ethical dilemma would be considered _

a. eth ics of cari ng

b. virtue ethics

c. principle ethics

d. none of the above

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Psychology Essay homework help

February 9, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Psychology Essay homework help

This assignment requires you to create your own action plan that incorporates a Social Justice perspective as an implicit theme underlying the Psychology of Women. ESSAY PROMPT : “What could I do to help make this a more just and fair world for girls and/or women?”

Considering such basic course concepts as gender, power/privilege, race, class, ethnicity, media impact, socialization, gender theory, etc., what might YOU realistically do to impact positive change for women or girls? We obviously cannot all sing melodiously for a benefit concert, or go to Africa as a volunteer, but each of us has the potential to make at least some level of positive difference. Previous ideas have included a prom dress drive to donate to local High Schools where students cannot afford to purchase new ones; old cell phones or clothing collected on a campus and at work and donated to a local battered women’s shelter; creation of a “Young Women’s Club” to inform and empower the girls at a local school, etc. In your personalized plan, do not use the examples provided-instead, introspect thoughtfully about who YOU are; you might consider your major and the expectations for your own future; think about your “sphere of influence” (friends & family, coworkers and others with whom you interact), think about your values and the world you would like to shape for future females…Include the answers to the following questions in your essay.

1. What resources and support will you need to do make this happen, and how/from whom specifically will you acquire them?

2. What specific target group of women or girls will benefit from your action plan?

3. How much time could you realistically commit to this project if you were to actually implement it?

4. You may NOT propose creating a new business entity, corporation, partnership or non-profit. The associated legal process is too time consuming for this small project…

Please write enough detail that if I wanted to, I could actually implement your plan from the description you have provided, without having to ask further questions or clarifications from you. Be realistic, be creative, be honest, and make it “do-able,”a project you would be able to completeduring a single semester. Your written submission should be approximately 600-800 words, it must be cut & pasted within the text box (NO ATTACHMENTS) . Vocabulary and grammar are important, so write carefully and please take the time to spellcheck and to proofread. A well-written, thoughtful and practical action plan, submitted according to these instructions, can earn up to 40 online assignment points.

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Psychology Forum 2 homework help

February 9, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Psychology Forum 2 homework help

METAMORPH Integrative Christian Counseling Grid

Dr. Guy R. Brewer

(All Scripture references are based on New International Version translation of the Bible.)

METAMORPH Integrative Christian Counseling Grid
Key Domains/Issues in Integrative Christian Counseling

Major Tenets/Counseling Theory

Biblical References

Spiritual Formation Principles

Techniques and/or Strategies

MIND

Related areas:

· Cognition

· Thinking

· Reasoning/analytical skills

· Imagination

· Presuppositions

· Discernment

Key Scripture:

Ephesians 4: 17,18

“You must no longer live as the gentiles do in the futility of their thinking. They are darkened in their understanding and separated from the life of God because of the ignorance that is in them due to the hardening of their hearts.”

Spiritual formation tradition:

Cognition, reasoning, and imagination are elements of human functioning that express the image of God. Counseling focuses on helping client become aware of habits of thought and the connection between self-deception, faulty thinking, and sin.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy: Identify cognitive distortions, faulty assumptions, and automatic negative self-talk.

Adlerian: Reeducation of faulty thinking, gain access to private logic.

Object Relations:

Identify details/history of representations that feed client’s perceptions, attachments, and desires.

Choice Theory: Help client become more aware and intentional about connection of thinking, actions, and self-perceptions.

Gestalt: Enhance client awareness of perceptions and thought processes in the here and now.

Proverbs 14:12: Self-deception and faulty thinking.

Proverbs 23:7: Determinative power of human thinking.

Isaiah 40:13, 14: Mind of God compared to human reasoning.

Romans 8:6-8 Conversion produces qualitatively different thinking, “spiritual mind.”

Romans 12:2: God uses transformation of thinking as an avenue to transform human life.

Loving God with our whole minds is the primary goal of cognitive activity:

Matt. 22:37-38

Human transformation follows a spiritual pattern that differs qualitatively from patterns of the world: Romans 12:2.

The goal of cognitive therapy is to be an avenue for the working of the mind of Christ:

1 Cor. 2:11-16.

Conversion to faith is movement from hostility toward God to hospitality in the peace of the Holy Spirit: Romans 8:5-8.

Spiritual direction: Exploration of private thoughts and automatic self-talk in terms of habits of thought, presuppositions, worldly values, and attitudes. Use of memorized Scripture to teach spiritual foundations for Godly thinking and to replace faulty thoughts and perceptions. Use of journaling to explore ruminations and reactive patterns of thought.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy:

Employ techniques and strategies such as Beck’s cognitive psychotherapy methods, cognitive and covert modeling, thought stopping, reframing, identification of cognitive distortions.

Choice Theory: Use exploratory questions: “What do you want? What are you doing to get what you want? How is it working for you? Is it the right thing to be doing?”

Adlerian:

Therapy might include techniques such as active wondering, redirecting to identify and correct faulty perceptions and unrecognized thoughts.

EMOTIONS

Related areas:

· Feelings

· Affect

· Moods

· Perceptions

· Emotional memories

Key Scripture:

Jeremiah 17:10

“I, the Lord, search the heart and examine the mind, to reward a man according to his conduct, according to what his deeds deserve.”

Spiritual formation tradition:

Primary concern is for life of the heart that includes the arena of feelings and emotions. Counseling focuses on self-control and

Avoidance of rash behavior. Counselor encourages client to be honest and take ownership for feelings while seeking the transformative power of the Holy Spirit in forging new ways to deal with feelings in a responsible manner.

Rational Emotive Therapy:

Assist client in identifying irrational beliefs, evaluations, perceptions and interpretations about what has happened to him/her.

Gestalt: Affective awareness is primary. Counseling works toward integration of sensations and feelings with actions.

Choice Theory: Explore connection of bad feelings with ineffective behavior. Affirm normal need for love, safety, and relationships.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy:

Get in touch with feelings that are buried and unrecognized, particularly the role of automatic negative thoughts and cognitive distortions.

Solution-focused:

Help client identify feelings in the moment and set attainable goals for change in emotional response.

Person-Centered Therapy:

Provide client safe, trusting space to explore feelings.

Deliverance from fear:

Psalm 27:1, 34:4.

Holy Spirit, source of peace:

Romans 8:6

Prayer as a pathway to peace:

Phil. 4:6,7.

Antidote for anxiety:

1 Peter 5:7

Emotional stability comes from abiding in the Lord: John 15:3-5.

Counselor as bringer of God’s comfort:

Isaiah 40:1

Fruit of the Spirit includes emotional virtues:

Galatians 5:22,23

Emotional foundations: You are God’s beloved.

Matthew 3:17, John 15: 9

Peace is a gift of God acquired through discipline of

steadfastness:

Isaiah 26:3, Ephesians 6:13

Fearfulness is driven by alienation from God:

1 John 4:18.

Jesus’ antidote for anxiety:

(Matt. 6: 25-34)

God’s point of view in assessing human functioning:

1 Samuel 16:7

Self-control and avoidance of rash behavior:

Titus 2:1-6

Spiritual formation: Use of prayer and meditation in combination with talk therapy to explore damaged memories that need healing. Explore faulty spiritual beliefs, particularly beliefs about grace, salvation, and forgiveness behind feelings. Provide client with trusting relationship in which feelings can be honestly discussed, sin can be confessed, and grace can be experienced. Model self-control and help client develop a plan for dealing with moods and emotional patterns that are life disruptive.

RET:

Employ techniques such as modeling, negative imagery, future imaging, labeling, and role-playing intentional use of emotionally charged language to help client become more aware and in charge of feelings.

Gestalt:

Get client in touch with feelings by asking, “How do you feel about that?” Use dramatization and guided imagery to bring feelings into concrete awareness.

CBT:

Identify automatic negative thoughts and cognitive distortions and make a plan for change. Focus on manageability of feelings related to fears and anxieties.

Solution-focused: Concentrate on here and now to identify emotional obstacles to change, select attainable goals, make a detailed plan.

Person-Centered: Active listening and feedback in trusting environment of unconditional positive regard.

TRANSFORMATIONAL

GOALS

Related Areas:

· Core self change

· Inside-out dynamics

· Redemption and Sanctification

· Purpose and meaning dimensions

· Assessment of client needs

· Overarching goals: What will this client look like if intervention is 100% effective?

Key Scripture:

Romans 12:1,2

“Therefore, I urge you, brothers, in view of God’s mercy, to offer your bodies as living sacrifices, holy and pleasing to God-this is your spiritual act of worship. Do not conform any longer to the pattern of this world, but be transformed by the renewing of your mind.”

Spiritual formation tradition:

Counseling is an inside-out, heart changing work of the Holy Spirit in which the spiritual counselor functions as a companion along the inner way. Counseling works toward reinvigorating the image of God within the person.

Person-Centered:

Counseling to clarify long-term goals and empower the client toward self-actualization of full potential.

Rational-Emotive Therapy:

Self-actualization of the client comes in the form of holistic self-understanding and functioning in which client consistently displays appropriate emotions and rational thinking.

Choice Theory:

Counseling is directed towards helping client understand legitimate needs and make life choices to meet those needs in a responsible, healthy way that is congruent with his/her beliefs.

Object Relations:

Counseling focuses on helping the client discover unconscious attachments, mental representations that drive feelings and behavior.

Cognitive Behavioral Therapy:

Counseling to help client change meaning making internal processes by identifying and correcting cognitive distortions, and faulty thinking.

Gestalt Therapy:

Counseling to help client gain freedom in the here and now from negative, unhealthy emotional patterns that shape meaning making.

Created in the image of God:

Genesis 1:26.27, 9:6

The right to become children of God:

John 1:11

God’s power to do a new thing in life:

Is. 43:18,19

New creation through reconciliation to God:

2Cor.5:16,17

Process of sanctification through focus on spiritual virtues and holy living:

Philippians 4:8,9

Freedom from past guilt and bondage:

Phil. 3:13,14

God has a specific purpose for each person:

Ephesians 2:10

As children of God, our future is limited only by God’s vision.

1 Jn. 3:2,3

Transformation and the life of the heart:

Lk. 6:43-45

Liberation through the anointing of the Holy Spirit:

Isaiah 61:1-3

Luke 4: 16-21

Hope development principles:

Romans 5:3-5

Healing power of confession of sin:

James 5:16

Freedom in Christ:

Galatians 5:1

Sufficiency of Grace:

(2 Cor. 12:9)

Living with the end in mind:

I Cor. 15:50-58

Humble dependence on God:

Proverbs 3:34

Spiritual formation tradition: Develop covenant with client for mutual encouragement and accountability for change. Intentionally work to develop atmosphere of hospitality in which the client is welcomed into safe space, is affirmed for gifts and potential, and is confronted with personal responsibility. Prayer, formative reading of the Bible, meditation, and journaling are key practices for discernment.

Person-Centered:

Therapeutic relationship is key. Counselor is empathic, genuine, and shows unconditional positive regard.

RET:

Work with client to reduce self-blame and self-defeating thoughts and feelings. Use repeated depth questions e.g. “Why is that?” “Then what?” to probe below layers of client resistance and/or denial.

Choice:

Follow grid of 8 systematic steps to build rapport, assess behavior, make a plan, get commitment, and hold client accountable.

Object relations:

Use interview and free association techniques to gain access to client’s inner world of perceptions, fears, beliefs, dreams, and wishes that reveal the inner representations that drive the way client shows up in the world.

Cognitive Behavioral:

Explore internal logic and cognitive distortions. Employ multimodal assessment e.g. Lazarus BASIC ID to gain holistic picture of impact of faulty thinking on client functioning.

Gestalt:

Help the client rebuild core values by integrating who the person was with who the person is now, including a new concept of self.

Strategies might include confrontation, “what” and “how” questions, “I” statements, feeding a sentence, use of fantasy and guided imagery.

ACTIONS

Related areas:

· Behavior

· Habits

· Personal responsibility

· Sin nature

· Attachments

· Obsessions

· Lifestyle

Key Scripture:

Colossians 3:17

“And whatever you do, whether in word or deed, do it all in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him.”

Spiritual formation tradition:

Actions of Christian disciples are expressions of obedience to the Holy Spirit and teachings of Jesus.

Counseling focuses on validating faith with faithful deeds.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy:

Behavior is based on internal logic and beliefs about self, relationships, and past events. To help the client behave more effectively requires correction of negative self-talk and cognitive distortions.

Choice Theory:

Counselor collaborates with client to identify needed change and make a plan. Responsibility for change remains with the client.

Rational Emotive Therapy:

Counselor approaches need for client change holistically, helping client become aware of blocks to change arising from self-loathing, self-defeating outlook, and irrational beliefs.

Person-Centered:

Counselor is unconditional supportive partner to client to listen actively and provide feedback for client discovery of potential for change.

Object relations:

By helping client become aware of unconscious attachments and internal representations, counselor empowers client to better understand logic behind behavior and make conscious choices for change.

Gestalt:

Counselor confronts client’s self-defeating attitudes and behaviors and creates environment for here and now change.

Solution-focused therapy:

Counselor helps client identify effective strategies from past that can be used again to solve present problems while avoiding negative perspectives and/or problem analysis.

Choose life:

Deut. 30:19

Repentance leads to new life:

Mark 1:15

Obedience leads to understanding God’s will:

John 7:17

Romans 12:2

Grace and truth as basis for actions:

John 1:17

Necessity of spiritual rebirth for qualitative change of life:

John 3: 5-8

Obedience as the path of love and fulfillment:

Jn. 14:23

Wisdom of obedience to Jesus’ teachings:

Matthew 7:24-27

Faith requires right action:

James 2:14-18

Godly lifestyle produces fruit:

(Eph. 4:20-32)

We are known by our fruit:

Luke 6:43-45

We are saved by grace, not works:

Ephesians 2:8,9

Spiritual formation:

Focus on grace that produces fruit to correct works righteousness worldview or pharisaical errors. In encouragement and accountability, both grace and truth are at work. Provide an opportunity for client to confess sins.

Cognitive Behavior:

Assist client in identifying desired behavior change while carefully exploring internal logic and faulty thinking behind ineffective behavior.

Person-Centered:

Covenant with client for behavior change, assuming a role of encourager/coach to hold client accountable.

Choice theory: Assist client in making a detailed plan for behavior change, including careful recordkeeping of baseline and behavior change.

Rational-Emotive:

Counselor uses techniques such as analogies, parables, metaphors, contradiction with cherished value, pragmatic disputes, semantic precision, and analysis of stories to help client discern irrational processes and self-destructive emotions.

Object relations:

Use free association and interview techniques to explore internal representations behind behavior.

Gestalt:

Use here and now techniques such as role-playing, “empty chair,” and guided imagery to clarify client’s perception of behavior. Confront blocks and relapses in behavior.

MOTIVATIONS

Related areas:

· Will

· Volitional life

· Conscience

· Attitudes

· Passions

· Motives

· Hope dynamics

· Authority Issues

Key Scripture:

Philippians 3:7

“But whatever was to my profit I now consider loss for the sake of Christ.”

Spiritual formation tradition:

Love of God, self, and neighbor is the primary motivation of the Christian disciple. Discipleship is a process of identifying our divided loyalties and increasingly opening our lives to experience God’s grace and love.

Person-Centered:

Humans are hard wired toward self-actualization and fulfillment of personal potential. Dysfunctionalities represent a short-circuiting of this natural process.

Adlerian therapy:

Motivating individuals to modify perceptions and internal beliefs that block personal effectiveness is a primary goal.

Object Relations:

Unconscious thoughts impact direction and motivation. The goal is the Reality Principle: to perceive relationships and one’s place in the world in realistic terms.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy:

By transforming emotions and self-perceptions, the client’s motivation for life is rebuilt and redirected.

Solution-focused:

The assumption is that people want to be motivated and want to change for the better. When this is not happening, the client is blocked by fear or lack of clarity about goals.

Self-deception about motives:

Prov. 16:2

God’s view of our motives:

1 Cor. 4:5

Priorities and passions:

Col. 3:1,2

Double-mindedness as a character flaw demonstrated in mixed motives:

James 1:6,7

Perseverance under trial fortifies resolve and motivation:

Heb. 12:7-13

Role of hope in motivation and perseverance:

Romans 5:3-5

Glorifying God as motive for life:

Matthew 5:16

Love of God, self, and neighbor as great motive of life:

Matt. 22:37-40

Impossibility of serving two masters:

Matt. 6:24

Self-examination and personal growth:

Lam. 3:40,

Encouragement is a universal need and a gift of God:

Romans 15:1-6

Conscience and the spiritual life:

2 Cor. 13:5

Spiritual attitude:

Phil. 2:1-8

Fruit-bearing as spiritual motive for actions:

John 15:8

Spiritual formation:

Motivation for change and sanctification is directly proportional to depth of relationship with God. Role of counselor is to increase hunger and thirst for righteousness in client. Where moral failures occur, counselor provides confessor role, offers forgiveness, and encourages client to fresh start in grace. Counselor serves as encourager to spur client along in growth.

Person-centered:

Focus on client empowerment to take responsibility. Active listening for strengths on which to build motivation.

Adlerian:

Identification of client needs and assistance to client to make a plan to meet needs.

Object relations:

Focus on trust building, interviewing client to discover inner world of perceptions and representations that drive beliefs toward goal of inner healing.

Cognitive behavior:

Client must decide if she/he wants to change. Counselor helps client identify negative self-talk and cognitive distortions that create discouragement and thwart motivation.

Solution-focused:

Counseling focuses on goal seeking using techniques such as miracle question, nightmare question, externalizing and normalizing perceived problems.

ORGANIC FACTORS

Related issues:

· Body life

· Health issues

· Human sexuality

· Physiological/neurological processes

Key scripture:

Romans 12:1

“Therefore, I urge you, brothers, in view of God’s mercy, to offer your bodies as living sacrifices, holy and pleasing to God-this is your spiritual act of worship.”

Spiritual formation tradition:

Emphasize sacredness of the body in the image of God and as temple of the Holy Spirit. Counseling should assist client in honestly facing the temptations of carnal life and distinguishing normal human needs from lusts and covetousness.

Person-centered:

Emphasis upon holistic life and encouragement to client to develop attitudes and behavior to actualize goals without physical self-destruction.

Adlerian therapy:

Assist client in discerning self-perceptions including body image that produce shame and self-destructive behavior.

Object relations:

Developmental approach to help client understand how bodily perceptions, particularly attitudes toward sexuality, arose from early attachments and internal representations.

Rational-emotive therapy:

Exploration of client history to determine genetic predispositions for behavior.

Physical examination by physician,

Health background assessment,

Cognitive testing

Temple of the Holy Spirit:

1Cor.6:19,20

Self-love and appropriate love of your body:

Eph. 5:29

Jesus’ example of rhythm of self-care:

Mark 6:31

Disrespect of body as consequence of unbelief:

Rom.1:21-25

Body life is a good gift from God:

Genesis 1:26-28

Sexuality is a blessing that is sometimes misused:

I Corinthians 6:12-18

Carnal life incompatible with Spiritual life:

Romans 7:21-25

Contentment as antidote for lust and covetousness:

Phil. 4:11-13

Sanctity of human body

Healing and Wholeness in Christ

(Lk. 7:22,23)

Sabbatical principle of rest and restoration:

Exodus 20:8-11

Spiritual formation:

Affirm goodness of body life and encourage client in self-acceptance of body as a gift of God. Confront misuse of body through substance abuse, eating disorders, self-neglect by overwork, and sexual acting out. Explore with client how these acts demonstrate self-loathing and disobedience to God. Assist client in distinguishing needs from lusts and covetousness. Support client in learning attitudes of contentment.

Person-centered:

Counselor is affirming person who encourages client to love herself/himself, including acceptance and self-affirmation of body type.

Adlerian:

Focus on identifying and changing negative perceptions related to body image and negative self-mage that lead to destructive or neglectful behavior.

Object relations:

Assist client in bringing unconscious self-representations into conscious awareness while identifying aspects of representations that lead to self-destructive behavior.

Rational-emotive:

Use of imagery and role-playing to discover internal values about body, attractiveness, and personal worth.

Partner with physician for assessment and monitoring of client’s physical health.

RELATIONAL DYNAMICS

Related areas:

· Family systems

· Support network

· Interpersonal skills

· Relational style

· Community life

· Therapeutic relationship

Key scripture:

“My command is this: Love each other as I have loved you. Greater love has no one than this, that he lay down his life for his friends.” John 15:12,13

Spiritual formation tradition:

Explore with client ways in which he/she understands community and the need for healthy relationships. Build a hospitable therapeutic relationship in which the client feels safe and has the opportunity to grow. Explore Biblical models for family, friendship, and participation in the body of Christ.

Adlerian therapy:

Strengthening healthy relationships is key to healthy individual functioning. Explore client’s relational ecology to identify conflicted relationships and provide client guidance in building a healthier social environment.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy:

Counselor is a key person in support system as collaborative partner in client change. Explore influences in relational network that impact client thinking and behavior.

Object relations:

Focus on past associations and attachments and their impact on the way client does relationships. Identify unconscious feelings of client that drive relationships. Therapist provides safe, trusting environment for exploration.

Person-Centered Therapy:

Identify client perceptions of conditional acceptance from others that foster incongruence. Explore ways that client defines his/her self-concept in others’ terms.

Rational-Emotive therapy:

Explore irrational beliefs and self-defeating outlooks that impact client relationships. Help client identify appropriate emotional patterns in healthy relationships. Therapist functions more as teacher and authority, not necessarily a source of affirmation.

Behavior Therapy:

Environment is key factor in behavior. Removing negative, destructive influences and enhancing positive, reinforcing relationships are vital steps. Clearly defined boundaries are necessary. Therapist insists that client maintain responsibility for behavior while serving as coach and collaborative partner.

Systems Theory:

Explore family and significant other relationships from the perspective of a contiguous, organic relational ecology of the client.

Humans were created for relationship:

Gen. 2:15-25

Friendship with God:

Jn. 15:11-17

Spiritual principles for healthy family relationships:

Eph.5:22-6:4

Children of God

1 John 3:2

Servanthood as key dynamic of friendship:

John 13:13-17

Care of family commanded by God

1 Tim. 5:8

God’s command to honor parents:

Deut. 5:16

Abiding in God is the basis of all relationships:

John. 15:1-17

Necessity of forgiveness:

Matt. 6:9-15

Reconciliation to God and others is the ministry of all Christians:

2 Cor. 5:16-20

Bear one another’s burdens:

Galatians 6:2

Use of gifts and graces in Body life of community:

1 Cor. 12

Command to show hospitality to all:

Romans 12:13,

1 Peter 4:9

Loving one another is the key dynamic behind all relationships:

John 13:34, 35

Spiritual formation:

Build relationship of trust and encouragement in which counselor can model grace and hospitality. Explore spiritual dynamics of relationships such as laying down your life for others, taking initiative vs. being reactive in relationships, principles of reconciliation and forgiveness.

Adlerian:

Use techniques such as role play, rehearsal of early recollections, outcome imagery (“How do you think this will work out?)

To identify faulty patterns behind conflicted relationships and to help the client envision healthier relationships.

Systems therapy:

Map family history and relational ecology with client.

Object relations:

Using structured interview and free association, help client gain awareness of unconscious relational dynamics.

Cognitive Behavior:

Identify faulty thinking about relationships and automatic self-talk that defines roles and relational patterns. Techniques might include disarming questions, “I feel” statements, and Socratic dialogue.

Person-centered:

Active listening and feedback to client about client’s needs, feelings, and desires in relationships.

Rational-Emotive:

Using ABC theory, explore meaning client has attached to significant others and relationships in general. Identify elements of self-hostility and self-defeating attitudes in relationships. Detect and dispute irrational beliefs about relationships.

PNEUMATIC ELEMENTS

Related issues:

· Spiritual history

· Relationship with God

· Personal spirituality

· Faith tradition

· Formation tradition

· Church involvement

· Core values and moral reasoning

Key Scripture:

“Since we live by the Spirit, let us keep in step with the Spirit.” Galatians 5:25

Spiritual formation tradition:

As a spiritual guide, counselor provides a safe environment for client to express faith, doubts, and fears about God and spiritual matters. Through a spiritual history and ecological mapping, counselor determines client’s past spiritual experiences, taking particular note of traumas and breakthroughs. The key dynamic is initiation of a process of a long-term spiritual exploration.

Eclectic theory:

Congruence requires that core values, behaviors, and feelings fit together. When they do not, a person is left with internal dissonance.

Cognitive Behavior Therapy:

Spirituality related to cognitive processes relates to integrity issues. Counselor works to help client become aware of self-deceptions, distortions, and incongruent values.

Person-Centered Therapy:

Spirituality is viewed in individualistic, privatized terms. Help client become conscious of spiritual values and personal integrity issues.

Rational-Emotive:

Although RET recognizes only minimal value in religious involvement, spirituality is related to internal consistency of values, thinking, and feeling. RET sees each individual as responsible for own life philosophy.

Systems Theory:

Using systems principles, counselor may explore client history of church involvement, family religiosity, and personal spirituality.

Power for living through the Holy Spirit:

Zechariah 4:6

Spiritual growth through times of suffering:

Romans 5:3-5

Life through the Spirit:

Rom. 8:1-17

Holy Spirit, the Great Counselor:

Jn. 14:16, 26

Spiritual perseverance:

Heb. 12:1-3

Life in the Body of Christ:

1Cor.12:12-27

Spiritual Discernment

(1 Cor. 2:10-15)

“One anothering,” mutual love and encouragement:

(Phil. 2:1-4)

Purpose of spiritual gifts:

(Eph. 2:11-13)

Fruit of the Spirit:

Galatians 5:22, 23

Spiritual Need for involvement in faith community:

Hebrews

10:24, 25

Spiritual life vs. carnal life:

Romans 7:21-25

God’s pattern of change, e.g. “mustard seed,” small beginnings:

Matt. 13:31,32

Zechariah 4:10

Spiritual formation:

Active listening and prayerful discernment. Identify flawed beliefs about God, Lead client in forgiveness for spiritual wounds. Use Spiritual temperament assessment, spiritual gifts inventories, and mapping of spiritual systems to discover patterns of spiritual growth, unhealed wounds, and persistent areas of struggle. Covenant with Christian clients for involvement in church and missions. Extend hospitality in both receptivity and loving confrontation of client.

Eclectic theory:

Values clarification work with client to identify core values.

Cognitive Behavior:

Active wondering and creative exploration of client talk and behavior for discovery of true values compared to stated values.

Person-centered:

Positively encourage client to move toward greater congruence in life.

HISTORY

Related issues:

· Developmental history Behavioral history

· Relational history

· Spiritual history

· Physical history

· Trauma history

Spiritual formation tradition:

Counselor offers client hope of redemption and certain future in Christ. Counseling may explore needs for forgiveness and reconciliation from the past as well as life lessons to be learned from past failure. Counselor offers grace for healing from guilt, shame, and condemnation.

Gestalt:

Focus on here and now, but identify historical maladjustments that need correcting.

Choice:

History viewed as attempts to satisfy 5 basic needs of survival. Look at history of coping techniques to evaluate effectiveness.

Adlerian:

Emotional development is learned behavior that can be better understood by examining relational history.

Object relations:

Developmental history is the primary dynamic to understand for effective therapy. Early childhood experiences deeply influence present perceptions and functioning.

Cognitive Behavior therapy:

Past environment has very large effect on behavior. Understanding environment, beliefs about environment, and perceptions are key to change.

God’s sovereignty and care across our lives:

Ps. 139:1-16

Life circumstances from a spiritual perspective:

Rom. 8:31-39

New creation principles and inward life:

2Cor.4:16,5:17

God’s mercies new every day:

Lam. 3:22, 23

Promises of eternal life:

John 3:15,16

John 17:3

Newness in the Spirit

2 Cor. 5:17

God-given purpose and future

Jer. 29:11

Healing of Memories

Eph. 4:32

Admitting our sinful past and seeking God’s forgiveness:

1 John 1:9

Healing power of forgiveness:

Mark 2:1-12

Freedom from guilt and shame about past:

Phil. 3:12-14

Spiritual formation:

Based on principles of grace and truth, help client accept responsibility for past history, accept and extend forgiveness, and learn from past errors. Counselor may emphasize new life in Christ and explore transformative process in client’s life. Where trauma is concerned, counselor may assist client in the process of spiritual healing of damaged memories.

Gestalt: Use techniques such as role-play, directed dialogue, fantasy, and guided imagery to assist client in removing blocks from past and resolving internal conflicts.

Object relations:

Focus on recovery of early recollections for clarification and assessment of unconscious attachments and internal representations.

Cognitive Behavior:

Use techniques such as Socratic dialogue for intentional questioning to help client push past self-defeating thoughts and to identify irrational and distorted thoughts.

Systems theory:

Map family systems and client ecology.

Bibliography
James, Richard K. and Gilliland, Burl E. (2003). Theories and Strategies in Counseling

And Psychotherapy. Boston, Massachusetts: Allyn and Bacon.

Jones, Stanton, L. and Butman, Richard E. (1991). A Comprehensive Christian Appraisal: Modern Psychotherapies. Downer’s Grove, Illinois: InterVarsity Press.

Nouwen, Henri, J.M. (2002). Ministry and Spirituality. New York, New York:

Continuum.

APPENDIX
Rationale for METAMORPH Integrative Christian Counseling Grid

METAMORPH integrative Christian counseling grid represents an eclectic approach to counseling that seeks to responsibly draw upon a plethora of counseling theories within the context of a Christian worldview. The following elements are foundational assumptions behind METAMORPH:

· Meta-theoretical foundation. As Jones and Butman point out, meta-theoretical eclecticism in counseling theory is superior to practical eclecticism because of the tendency for self-deception in counseling applications. In the absence of a coherent meta-theory, even well meaning and well trained therapist may find themselves in error in assuming that “what they do works” (390). As a meta-theory, METAMORPH relies upon insights into human functioning that come from spiritual formation and soul care tradition. As the name implies (metamorph is a transliteration of the Greek word for “transformation),” spiritual formation meta-theory views the process of human change as a “larger than” process. In METAMORPH meta-theory, the goal of counseling goes beyond incremental change or even success in worldly terms to hold out hope for a qualitative change in life through the power of the Holy Spirit.

· Redemptive view of humanity. METAMORPH assumes that no one is beyond redemption and that counseling is fundamentally a redemptive process. By this, I mean that the point of counseling is reconciliation and restoration of the person with Jesus Christ and with himself/herself.

· Holistic functioning. METAMORPH maps human functioning into nine domains that cover the span of human functioning. No area of human functioning is more important than another. Equally, METAMORPH acknowledges the interaction of areas of functioning and seeks to promote the internal and external integrity of the client.

· Inside-out and outside-in dynamics of counseling. METAMORPH relies upon the assumption of spiritual formation tradition that lasting change, and especially, transformation occur through a change of the core self. That is to say, transformation is always an “inside-out” pattern. However, METAMORPH also acknowledges the helpfulness of many counseling theories that employ an “outside-in” pattern of therapy. These methodologies serve as tools in the larger purpose of client transformation.

· Multi-tasking in counseling. The METAMORPH grid employs a multi-tasking methodology to assist the counselor in approaching client needs from a multiplicity of viewpoints and techniques.

· Servanthood. The purpose of the METAMORPH model is to serve the needs of clients. Theories on which the model draws are secondary to a diligent and careful assessment of client needs.

· Humility. METAMORPH assumes that all healing comes from God and that the Holy Spirit provides wisdom for life-changing counsel. This model also insists that the integrity of the counselor, including counselor self-awareness of limitations and sinfulness, is a key therapeutic dynamic.

References:

Chapters 1-2: McMinn, M. R. (2011). Psychology, theology, and spirituality in Christian counseling (Revised ed.). Carol Stream, IL: Tyndale House. ISBN: 9780842352529.

Entwistle, D. N. (2015). Integrative approaches to psychology and Christianity: An introduction to worldview issues, philosophical foundations, and models of integration (3rd ed.). Eugene, OR: Wipf and Stock Publishers. ISBN: 9781498223485.

Chapter 4: Hawkins, R., & Clinton, T. (2015). The new Christian counselor: A fresh biblical & transformational approach. Eugene, OR: Harvest House. ISBN: 9780736943543.

Please include Christian worldview and/or bible scriptures, APA format, cited and referenced. Discussion must be approximately 300–400 words and demonstrate course-related knowledge. Make sure to justify and support your answer. Where appropriate, use in-text citations to support your assertions.

For discussion this module/week, we consider how to counsel suffering clients. The class lectures, Entwistle, and McMinn all discuss the concept of suffering and factors guiding how we counsel those who are suffering.

1. Considering the numerous points that were made, make a list of at least 5 concepts (“questions to ask myself as I counsel those who are suffering. . . “) that you found particularly helpful, insightful, unique, or had not thought about before.

2. What guidelines would you particularly emphasize as you counsel hurting people?

3. Then consider this client’s statement: Client: “Counselor, I have been coming to you now for six weeks. I am not sure that counseling is working. I don’t feel any better now than when we started talking. Why are you not helping to remove this pain that I am feeling?” If your client expects that you help to remove the suffering, how would you respond, based on what you learned from your study for the week?

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Graduate Statistics Homework Help

February 9, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

Graduate Statistics Homework Help

Complete the following exercises from “Review Questions” located at the end of each chapter and put them into a Word document to be submitted as directed by the instructor.

1. Chapter 1, numbers 1.8 and 1.9

2. Chapter 2, numbers 2.14, 2.17, and 2.18

3. Chapter 3, numbers 3.13, 3.14, 3.18, and 3.19

4. Chapter 4, numbers 4.9, 4.14, 4.17, and 4.19

Show all relevant work; use the equation editor in Microsoft Word when necessary.

1.9 Recent studies, as summarized, for example, in E. Mortensen et al. (2002). The association between duration of breastfeeding and adult intelligence. Journal of the American Medical Association, 287, 2365–2371, suggest that breastfeeding of infants may increase their subsequent cognitive (IQ) development. Both experiments and observational studies are cited.

(a) What determines whether some of these studies are experiments?

(b) Name at least two potential confounding variables controlled by breastfeeding experiments.

2.14 (a) Construct a frequency distribution for the number of different residences occupied by graduating seniors during their college career, namely

1, 4, 2, 3, 3, 1, 6, 7, 4, 3, 3, 9, 2, 4, 2, 2, 3, 2, 3, 4, 4, 2, 3, 3, 5

(b) What is the shape of this distribution?

3.13 Garrison Keillor, host of the radio program A Prairie Home Companion, concludes each story about his mythical hometown with “That’s the news from Lake Wobegon, where all the women are strong, all the men are good-looking, and all the children are above average.” In what type of distribution, if any, would

(a) more than half of the children be above average?

(b) more than half of the children be below average?

(d) all the children be above average?

3.14 The mean serves as the balance point for any distribution because the sum of all scores, expressed as positive and negative distances from the mean, always equals zero.

(a) Show that the mean possesses this property for the following set of scores: 3, 6, 2, 0, 4.

(b) Satisfy yourself that the mean identifies the only point that possesses this property. More specifically, select some other number, preferably a whole number(for convenience), and then find the sum of all scores in part (a), expressed as positive or negative distances from the newly selected number. This sum should not equal zero.

3.18 Given that the mean equals 5, what must be the value of the one missing observation from each of the following sets of observations? (a) 1, 2, 10

(b) 2, 4, 1, 5, 7, 7

3.19 Indicate whether the following terms or symbols are associated with the population mean, the sample mean, or both means.

(a) N

(b) varies

(d) constant

(e) subset

4. 9 For each of the following pairs of distributions, first decide whether their standard deviations are about the same or different. If their standard deviations are different, indicate which distribution should have the larger standard deviation. Hint: The distribution with the more dissimilar set of scores or individuals should produce the larger standard deviation regardless of whether, on average, scores or individuals in one distribution differ from those in the other distribution.

(a) SAT scores for all graduating high school seniors (a1) or all college freshmen (a2)

(b) Ages of patients in a community hospital (b1) or a children’s hospital (b2)

(d) GPAs of students at some university as revealed by a random sample (d1) or a census of the entire student body (d2)

(e) Anxiety scores (on a scale from 0 to 50) of a random sample of college students taken from the senior class (e1) or those who plan to attend an anxiety-reduction clinic (e2)

(f) Annual incomes of recent college graduates (f1) or of 20-year alumni (f2)

4.14 (a) Using the computation formula for the sample sum of squares, verify that the sample standard deviation, s, equals 23.33 lbs for the distribution of 53 weights in Table 1.1.

(b) Verify that a majority of all weights fall within one standard deviation of the mean (169.51) and that a small minority of all weights deviate more than two standard deviations from the mean.

4. 17 Why can’t the value of the standard deviation ever be negative?

4. 19 Referring to Review Question 2.18 on page 46, would you describe the distribution of majors for all male graduates as having maximum, intermediate, or minimum variability?

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PSYC 421 Quiz 7 homework help

February 9, 2024/in Assignment Help, Homework Help /by Daniel Jennings

PSYC 421 Quiz 7 homework help

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1. Consider the following sample item on a personality test:
Instructions: Which statement describes you better?
(A) I am unhappy too much of the time.
(B) I am nervous too much of the time.
This item is an example of which type of item format?

2. The Sixteen Personality Factor Questionnaire (16 PF) contains 16 factors developed through factor analysis. There is, however, controversy about the number of factors that are “really” evident in this test. According to your textbook, most theorists who argue that there are not 16 factors on the 16 PF believe that

3. According to Dr. Rick Malone, which is true about Meloy’s (2000) biopsychosocial (BPS) model?

4. The assumption that a constellation of traits and states may be used to identify a particular category of personality is inherent in

5. A woman who states as a fact that she “wears too many hats” in her daily life might BEST be characterized as

6. A key definitional difference between the terms personality trait and personality state has to do with

7. For Colonel Rick Malone, the practice of threat assessment entails, among other things, the gathering of intelligence designed to protect senior Department of Defense officials who are referred to as “principals.”

8. In the Karisoke study of gorilla personality, inter-rater reliability was found to be ________ among the ________ raters.

9. The Self-Directed Search Tests are based on six personality

10. Who typically serves as the informant when the Personality Inventory for Children II (PIC-II) is administered?

11. The MMPI-A may be criticized for its lack of

12. Rating scales may be used to

13. Which of the following BEST represents your textbook authors’ definition of personality?

14. As a result of self-monitoring her food intake a former client of Weight Watchers finds that her food intake habits have improved. This phenomenon could BEST be cited as an example of

15. The oracle-like, clinical orientation has been characterized as the third ear approach. According to your textbook, this orientation has been replaced by what might be termed

16. When interpretations about personality are derived from analysis of figure drawings

17. In 1907, an early study using pictures as projective stimuli for storytelling found differences as a function of

18. The utility of self-reports and self-monitoring is to some extent dependent on

19. In recent years, projective tests have

20. The polygraph

21. Which of the following is NOT an unobtrusive measure?

22. An early projective test used ________ as projective stimuli.

23. According to Emanuel Hammer, people project their self-image or self-concept in

24. Debate over the validity of the Rorschach has stemmed from inconclusive results of research examining

25. The use of projective tests minimizes

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