My Virtual Life Simulation Assignment

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My Virtual Life Simulation Assignment

My Virtual Life Simulation Assignment

Overview: My Virtual Life is a simulation. The simulation allows you to raise a child from birth to age 18 and monitor the effects of your parenting decisions over time. Assignment Directions:

1. Specifically, in Appendix A, you will find the exact questions you are to answer after raising your child and a rubric for how your responses will be graded. You will see the assignment is divided into 4 parts: infants and toddlers, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Each part is worth 25 points, equaling 100 total points.

2. Your responses to the questions in Appendix A should be typed in a word document. Use single space, Times New Roman 10-point font, and 1-inch margins.

My Virtual Life Simulation 1 Infants and Toddlers (23 points) – Appendix A General guidelines: A good answer will address every part of the question, and will describe the child’s behavior and provide 1 or 2 supporting examples. In addition, wherever possible, you should relate your descriptions and explanations of the child’s behavior to the concepts, theories and research covered in the book. Please avoid expressing an unfounded opinion – try to base your arguments on research studies and conclusions, or a theory that seems well supported by the research in the field. The questions are printed below along with a scoring rubric. 0-8 Months: 1. How does your baby’s eating, sleeping and motor development compare to the typical developmental patterns? 1 point for describing VC’s behavior in each of two domains and referring to what might be expected at these ages. (2 points) 2. At 8 months of age was your child an “easy”, “slow-to-warm-up”, or “difficult” baby in terms of Thomas and Chess’s classic temperamental categories? On what do you base this judgement? 1/2 point for explaining the category and half a point for a supporting observation on VC’s behavior (1 point) 3. How is your child’s attachment to you and your partner developing? What is happening at the 3-month and 8-month periods that might affect attachment security according to Bowlby and Ainsworth, and various research studies?

 

 

1 point each for describing two aspects of the child’s behavior that indicate attachment is developing at 3 or 8 months, and 1 point for describing one aspect of parental behavior that may affect attachment security. (3 points) 8–19 months: 1. Describe and give examples of changes in your child’s exploratory or problem solving behavior from 8 through 18 months and categorize them according to Piagetian and information processing theories. Note that 8 months is included, so you’ll need to use the time-line to look back at 8 months for examples. 1 point for describing an improvement or a qualitatively new behavior and one point for explaining it using a specific Piagetian or information processing concept to classify the child’s behavior (2 points) 2. Analyze your baby’s temperament in more detail at 18 months than you did at 8 months. How would you describe your baby in terms of the five aspects of temperament utilized by the Virtual Child program (activity, sociability, emotionality, aggressiveness vs. cooperativeness, and self- control)? Has your baby’s temperament been stable over the first 18 months? A blurb defining and providing examples of the five aspects of temperament is provided at 12 months, but you should seek out further explanations of temperament from your textbook. Explain how the concept of goodness of fit (also discussed in the blurb on infant temperament) applies to your interactions with your child. 1/2 point for giving a supporting example of each of the five aspects of temperament, ½ point for addressing the issue of stability and 1 point for discussing and giving an example of goodness of fit (4 points) 3. Were you surprised by anything in the developmental assessment at 19 months? That is, does your perception of your child’s physical, cognitive, language and social development differ from that of the developmental examiner? Give specific examples. If you were not surprised, write instead about some aspects of your child’s development that need the most work. 1 point for describing each area of development plus a description of why you were either surprised or not surprised by each, based on the textbook (3 points) 2 Years: 1. Have there been any environmental events in your child’s first 2 ½ years that you think might have influenced his or her behavior? On what do you base your hypotheses? 1 point for each of two environmental events – be sure to explain how you think they influenced your child (2 points) 2. How is your child progressing on the typical toddler issues, such as learning household rules, learning to follow routines, listening to you, developing self-control and learning to get along with other children? 1 point for each of three toddler issues (total of 3 points)

 

 

3. Analyze your own parenting philosophy and practices. What principles from social learning theory, Bowlby, Ainsworth, Piaget, Vygotsky, information processing theory, developmental neuroscience and other theories do you appear to have relied on in making your parenting choices or interpreting your child’s behavior? Include three principles/theorists from the above list in your answer. 1 point for discussing an example from your parenting that fits a concept or principle from each of three theories you select from the list above (3 points) Early Childhood (age 3-4 years) (17 points) 3 years: 1. What activities and experiences you and your child have engaged in might be promoting healthy behavioral practices and an interest in physical activity. 1 point for each of three activities or experiences (3 points) 2. Describe development of your child’s language and cognitive skills and discuss how these might be affecting his or her interactions with you and your responses. 1 point for each of two examples illustrating changes in cognitive or language skills and for explaining how they might affect your interactions with your child (2 points) 3. How well is your child adapting to social situations in the home and outside the home? Does your child have any behavior or emotional problems at this point? Why do you think these problems are occurring and what are you doing about them? 1 point for an instance of adaptation in the home and 1 point for an instance outside the home. 1 point for describing a problem (or an area in which the child needs improvement) and what the parent is doing or plans to do about it. (3 points) 4 years: 1. How would you characterize your parenting style? How have your specific parenting techniques changed since infancy? In what ways do you think your parenting style, or any other aspect of your parenting, has been influenced by your cultural background or other experiences? 1 point each for two examples describing your parenting style, and 1 point for illustrating how specific parenting techniques have changed since infancy (3 points) 2. Describe two specific examples of changes in your child’s behavior at age 4 that seem to stem from growth in cognitive and language ability since the period of infancy (e.g., improvements in symbolic thinking, reasoning, knowledge of the world, theory of mind). 1 point for each of two examples of changes in behavior; be sure to use one or more concepts from the course, including but not limited to those listed above (2 points)

 

 

3. How would you characterize your child’s personality? Would you say that your child is primarily overcontrolled, undercontrolled or resilient? Support your argument.

*Recall that the Virtual Child’s behavior at age 3 and 4 is designed to resemble one of three personality types. The personality types combine some of the temperamental traits with which you are already familiar. The overcontrolled category refers to a child who is cooperative and follows the rules, but is shy in social situations and anxious and clingy under pressure. The undercontrolled category refers to a child who is uncooperative or even aggressive, does not follow the rules, may or may not be shy in social situations, and has a tendency to become distracted and overly emotional, particularly when under stress. The resilient category refers to a child who is cooperative and follows the rules, is friendly, non-aggressive and outgoing, able to focus on tasks without being too distracted, has good regulation of his or her emotions, and is adaptable to new situations. Refer to the course reader and lecture.

4 points for a well-documented explanation, with two examples of behavior in different situations that support your argument (4 points) Middle Childhood (age 6-11 years) (30 points)

6 Years: 1. How well is your child adapting to social situations in the home and outside the home? Does your child have any behavior or emotional problems at this point? Why do you think these problems are occurring and what are you doing about them? 1 point each for providing an example to illustrate how well the child is adapting in the home and outside the home. 1 point for describing a problem or an area in which the child needs improvement and providing a hypothesized reason for the problem and 1 point for describing what you are doing about these problems. (4 points) 2. Do you notice any improvements in cognitive and language skills since age 4? Give specific examples. Does your child have any special needs with regard to cognitive or language development at this point and what do you plan to do? 1 point each for a description of a cognitive change and a language change. 1 point for description of special needs. (3 points) 3. Which aspects of your child’s behavior and personality reflect continuities from earlier behavior (e.g., at ages 3-4 years) and which seem to be novel for this age level? 1 point for an example of a continuity and 1 point for an example of a novel change. 2 points for discussing how any of these adaptive responses depend on your child’s personality vs. novel behavior evoked by the unique demands. (4 points total) 8 Years: 1. How smart is your child, and in what areas? Think back to the blurb on multiple intelligences that appeared at age 6. Find specific evidence regarding your child’s verbal, logical-

 

 

mathematical, spatial, musical and bodily-kinesthetic intelligence from your observations of your own child as well as the psychologist’s report at age 8 years, 11 months. 1 point for an example illustrating your child’s level in two of the five areas of intelligence (2 points) 2. Describe some examples of your child’s behavior or thinking that you think are due to typical American gender role socialization and explain why you think so. Several examples can be found at ages 6 and 8. How closely does your attitude toward gender roles correspond to typical American attitudes, and if there is a discrepancy, to what do you attribute this (e.g., cultural background, attitudes of your own parents, etc.)? 1 point for each of two examples illustrating gender role socialization and 1 point for discussing evidence from the book and lecture about gender roles, and comparing them to your own attitudes. One point for giving an example from the program of how you have put your attitudes into play (4 points) 3. How might your child’s development have been different if s/he was raised by people with a different socioeconomic, ethnic or cultural background? Base your answer on specific evidence of SES/cultural differences from the textbook and class lectures. 1 point each for two examples of how it would be different, each backed up by info from the text. (2 points) 10 Years: 1. Describe your child’s academic skills between ages 6 and 10 and assess how well these skills are developing. The 5th grade report card will be useful for this but you should also incorporate your own observations. What are you doing to help your child? 1 point each for describing two academic skills and how they have changed. 2 points for describing 2 ways you are helping your child (4 points) 2. How well is your child adapting to social situations in the home and outside the home? Does your child have any behavior or emotional problems at this point? Why do you think these problems are occurring and what are you doing about them? 1 point for providing an example to illustrate how well the child is adapting in the home and outside the home. 1 point for describing a problem or an area in which the child needs improvement and providing a hypothesized reason for the problem and 1 point for describing what you are doing about these problems. (3 points) 3. Has your parenting changed since the preschool period and if so, why do you think it has changed and what effect might this have on your child? Refer to your textbook or lecture notes for evidence on typical changes in parenting that occur in middle childhood. 1 point each for describing two ways in which your parenting has changed, 1 point for thinking about why it has changed and 1 point for hypothesizing about effects on the child. Be sure to

 

 

include evidence from the text or lecture about typical changes in parenting in middle childhood. (4 points) Adolescence (12-18 years) (30 Points) 12 Years: 1. Describe any physical or behavioral signs of incipient puberty. 1 point each for two examples of physical and/or behavioral (which can include cognitive, social or emotional) signs of puberty and a citation of the text or lecture as a source indicating why these types of changes are important (2 points). 2. How would you characterize your child at this point in terms of the under-controlled, over- controlled or resilient categories? Have there been any changes since the preschool period and why might they have occurred? 1 point each for describing 3 changes and why you think each occurred. (3 points) 3. Using the 7th grade report card and your own observations, summarize your child’s academic skills at this point. What specific activities might promote some of these skills? 1 point each for describing and giving two examples of your child’s academic skills. Make sure not to rely solely on the report cards, i.e., cite your own observations. 2 points for describing some activities that might facilitate growth in these 2 academic skills (4 points) 15 Years: 1. What activities and experiences at ages 12 and 14 has your teen been involved in that might promote healthy behavioral practices, physical fitness and skill in sports? 1 point each for examples of two activities that promote physical health and/or sports skill and 1 point for citing arguments from the course or the readings as to why these activities are beneficial (3 points) 2. Have there been any changes in your teen’s behavior toward you or your partner? Why are these occurring and how are you responding? 2 points for describing 2 changes and why you think each has occurred (2 points) 3. Do you see any examples of how cognitive and physical changes in early adolescence (ages 12-14) that relate to your teen’s social or emotional behavior? 1 point each for describing one cognitive and one physical change and how each may affect the teen’s social or emotional life. (2 points)

 

 

16 Years: 1. Think about your teen’s cognitive strengths and weaknesses and how they are reflected in his or her school grades and activities from 14-16 years of age. What careers or courses of study might be best suited to your teen’s abilities and interests? 1 point each for describing a strength and a weakness and relating those to a career they would suit and explaining why they would suit someone in that career (2 points) 2. How important have your teen’s relationships with peers been to his/her social development, emotional well-being and school achievement from 14-16 years of age? 1 point for each of three examples of a possible connection between peer and romantic relationships to the child’s social, emotional or academic development and citing points from the course that support the importance of these types of peer relationships to later behavior (3 points) 3. How has your teen adjusted at 14-16 years of age to typical adolescent issues such as risk- taking, drugs, alcohol, and sexual interests, and how have you responded to your teen? 1 point for each of two examples of an issue your teen has encountered from this list, and 1/2 point for describing how you responded to that specific issue and ½ point for describing why it is important to long-term adolescence adjustment (according to the text and lecture). (3 points) 18 Years: 1. As the program ends, what pathways does your child appear to be on in terms of physical, cognitive, social, emotional and moral development? To what extent could you have predicted these pathways based on what you knew of your child’s earlier development? Describe some specific ways in which you think your parenting mattered for your child’s development, based on evidence from the course regarding the contributions of parents to child development. 1 point for discussing each of two pathways and for providing supporting documentation (2 points) 2. Describe some specific ways in which your child developed that appeared to be influenced by factors outside your control, such as genes, random environmental events or the general influence of contemporary middle-class American culture. 1 point each for 2 influences (2 points) 3. Bonus Question: Are there any issues you had with your parents, your school work, your friends, or your romantic involvements in the last year of high school that continued to be issues for you in college? Reflect on your own personality, interests and cognitive abilities at the time you graduated high school. How did these personality characteristics and abilities manifest themselves in subsequent years? How have they changed since your high school days, if at all? 1 point each for 2 issues and how each affected you in college. (2 points)

 
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The Five Imperatives Of Managing Across Cultures

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The Five Imperatives Of Managing Across Cultures

Assignment Content

According to Branine (2011), there are five imperatives of managing effectively across cultures:

  1. Valuing diversity and equality as integral to organizational effectiveness
  2. Creating competitive advantage through flexible working practice and family friendly policies
  3. Understanding ethical and unethical behaviors in other countries
  4. Transforming the use of information and communications across borders
  5. Developing a sense of employee environmental awareness and well being

Write a 700- to 1,050-word paper that discuss in detail one of the imperatives of managing effectively across cultures. Include the following in your paper:

  1. The complexities of implementation of these distinct moves in the United States and one international labor market, such as England, Germany, Kenya, China, Jamaica West Indies, or United Arab Emirates.
  2. Compare the levels of progress made in the targeted locales.
  3. Draw conclusions about possible next steps in promoting progress.

Format your paper according to APA guidelines.

Reference minimum of two (2) peer-reviewed APA References

Text Reference

Branine, M. (2011). Managing across cultures: Concepts, policies and practices. Los Angeles, CA: Sage. ISBN: 9781849207294

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Managing information technologies

Information technologies involving storing, transmitting, exchanging and retrieving information have changed the way people are managed throughout the world. The internet (world-wide) or the intranet (organization based) is simply an electronic device that makes the processing and transfer of information fast and easy. Through the use of this device, information flows between offices and across national borders through a network of computers. It is normally used to support a lot of applications such as the discovery of information (browsing and information retrieval), fast and inexpensive communication (email, instant messaging, blogs, skyping, information transfer) and collaboration (two or more people can work together or share common resources or servers). Computers provide the basic unit for storing, retrieving, processing, sending, receiving, generating and managing information (Turban et al., 1999). The information itself can be in the form of words, numbers, pictures, moving images, graphics and sound. Information is shared via satellite, television, mobile phones and computers.

The use of information technologies has made it possible for organizations to be more flexible and more efficient in times of economic hardship and increasing competition. For example, we have seen from the case study at the end of Part II of this volume how US multinational companies resorted to the use of video-conferencing to reduce the need for travelling. Also, a great example of the international use of the internet occurred when Philips celebrated its 100th anniversary in 1991: the president of the company used a televised world-wide conference to explain the company’s prospects to the entire workforce (The Economist, 1995). Other uses of the internet and intranet are for entertainment, education and electronic commerce. With the use of the internet every firm becomes international without having to open subsidiaries in other countries. A small company can easily sell its products or provide services throughout the world via the internet.

In short, the use of the internet has changed the way organizations operate and the way employers interact with their customers, suppliers and employees. The spread of information between the headquarters of a multinational company and their employees in different countries is more effective than ever before (Turban et al. 1999; Sparrow et al., 2004). Information flows instantly from one part of the world to another, and a communication network can be created within minutes if not seconds. Managers can have instant access to their employees’ personal and contract details, educational and training records, and information on appraisal, discipline, absences, etc.

The applications of information technologies in the management of human resources are significant, wide-ranging and increasingly important. For example:

  1. The use of the internet has made it easy for employers to advertise their job vacancies and for applicants to access them. Most organizations have online job applications and they even conduct interviews online or via video-conferencing. Since many people world-wide have access to the internet the reponses from applicants reflect a diversity of people with various backgrounds, expertises, experience and qualifications. According to Brewster et al. (2007: 101–2), the use of the internet allows international organizations to widen their pool of recruitment at relatively low cost, attract specific job applicants with a desired skills match, target sources of graduate recruitment such as MBA career centres, and ‘improve on traditional advertising approaches by targeting particular lifestyle or culture-fit groups (such as expatriates or people who consume services similar to those provided by the host firm)’.
  2. The application of information technologies has also become a useful tool for national and international organizations to train their employees. Companies use intranets and the internet extensively to educate and train their employees because in this way training costs are reduced and training programmes can reach as many people as possible, even if they are employed in different subsidiaries around the world. There are also a number of software packages that are designed for individual and group learning and for personal self-development in different disciplines.
  3. Moreover, the administration of the payroll for employees world-wide has been widely facilitated through the use of computer software and networking technologies. The transfer of cash by means of electronic transfers and other global networks has facilitated not just the way employees are paid, but also the way customers pay for the goods and the services they buy and the way employers pay their suppliers and their clients.
  4. Team-working can be enhanced by the use of advanced information and communication technologies. Information can be shared through the internet, issues can be discussed online, and decisions can be made or solutions to problems can be given through video-conferencing, blogging, etc. This IT-based process can result in greater creativity, mutual learning, more rapid response times, effective problemsolving, and so on. Virtual teams can be easily set up, giving instant access to information and immediate exchange of ideas and solutions to work-related performance and quality problems.
  5. The use of information and communication technologies can lead to significant reductions in the cost of travelling and associated expenditure on accommodation and subsistence, as well as saving time and effort. A further aspect of flexibility resulting from the use of IT is that multinational companies can relocate work and gain from lower labour and mobility costs (Taylor and McIntosh, 1998).

However, there are a number of political, social, economic and technological factors that affect the international applications of the internet across cultures. For example, not all governments support the use of the internet in all aspects of life. Many countries impose restrictions on internet access. There are also taxation, security and intellectual property issues that differ from one country to another with respect to the use of the internet for domestic and business purposes.

In-text Citation

(Branine, 2011, p. 577)

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Technical changes and flow of information

Technical changes have led to the introduction of more productive and flexible working arrangements. The use of electronic control systems has made production and distribution processes more efficient, sophisticated and economic than before. For example, the advent of the internet has facilitated growth of international trade, international communications and easy access to information worldwide. Electronic mailing and information systems as well as the computerization of flight and shipping services are examples of current developments in information technologies. Customers can learn more about the goods they consume and many manufacturers are better informed about the needs of their customers. The international mobility of information has been enhanced by the integration of data processing and telecommunications networks on a global scale. Information can flow easily across borders, making geographical barriers less relevant and reducing the cost of travelling. Moreover, as information can be transferred quickly, rapid innovations can be effected in different countries, reducing lead times and product life cycles and increasing competition and cooperation between geographically dispersed organizations.

The speed and accuracy of information transmission are changing the nature of the international manager’s job. Technology allows managers to access information and share it instantly. The internet is used increasingly by national and international companies for crucial HRM functions such as advertising job vacancies, contacting potential employees and online learning. The use of information technologies has led to an increasing demand for a workforce that is not just IT skilled but for also talented people with creative and innovative ideas as well as competency in languages.

In-text Citation

(Branine, 2011, p. 15)

 
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Complete the Comparison Worksheet.

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Complete the Comparison Worksheet.

cid:D7D4B297-EEAE-4174-AD01-F87097282051@canyon.com

 

 

CNL-500 Topic 6: Comparison Worksheet

Directions: Choose two family systems theories (Bowenian, Structural, Strategic, or Satir) and one individual counseling theory studied in this course (any theory studied in topics 1-5) and compare the three theories.

Part 1: Create a hypothetical family. Develop a scenario that has caused this family to seek counseling. The scenario should be 150-250 words in length. Be sure to include the following in the scenario: 1) Identify the members of the family; 2) The problem/focus of therapy; 3) Family rules which enabled the problem to continue; and 4) rationale for who the identified patient (IP) is.

Family Scenario:

 

Part 2: Complete the specific fields listed in the chart for each theory chosen. All sections will require a 50-75-word description except for the section where you list the three treatment interventions. Include a minimum of six scholarly resources in addition to the course textbook and in-text citation as appropriate. Include a full APA reference for the resources used below.

  Multi-Person Family Therapy

(a session including more than one family member present)

 Single Person Family Systems Approach

(a session using a family systems theory with only one person present)

 Individual Counseling Theory

(any theory of your choice from weeks 1-5)
Theory <Enter First Chosen Theory> <Enter Second Chosen Theory> <Enter Third Chosen Theory>
Roles of the Counselor and Client(s) (50-75 words each)      
Describe the state of dysfunction

How would you describe the problem from each theoretical orientation? (50-75 words each)

      
Process of Change

How is change accomplished? (50-75 words each)

      
List 3 Treatment Interventions Intervention 1:

 

Intervention 2:

 

Intervention 3:

 Intervention 1:

 

Intervention 2:

 

Intervention 3:

 Intervention 1:

 

Intervention 2:

 

Intervention 3:

 
Important Ethical Considerations (50-75 words each)      
How would this theory help the family in your scenario establish a new homeostasis? (50-75 words each)      

 

 

References

© 2019. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.

 

© 2019. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.

 
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>Psychology homework help

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>Psychology homework help

 

Title

ABC/123 Version X

 1
Time to Practice – Week Three

PSYCH/625 Version 1

 2

University of Phoenix Material

Time to Practice – Week Three

Complete both Part A and Part B below.

Part A

Some questions in Part A require that you access data from Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics. This data is available on the student website under the Student Test Resources link.

1. For the following research questions, create one null hypothesis, one directional research hypothesis, and one nondirectional research hypothesis.

a. What are the effects of attention on out-of-seat classroom behavior?

Research Hypothesis: There will be a relationship between the effects of attention on out-of-seat classroom behavior versus in-seat-classroom behavior.

b. What is the relationship between the quality of a marriage and the quality of the spouses’ relationships with their siblings?

Null Hypothesis: There will be no relationship in the relationship between the quality of a marriage and the quality of the spouses’ relationship with their siblings.

c. What is the best way to treat an eating disorder?

One Directional Research Hypothesis:

2. Provide one research hypothesis and an equation for each of the following topics:

a. The amount of money spent on food among undergraduate students and undergraduate student-athletes

b. The average amount of time taken by white and brown rats to get out of a maze

c. The effects of Drug A and Drug B on a disease

d. The time to complete a task in Method 1 and Method 2

3. Why does the null hypothesis presume no relationship between variables?

4. Create a research hypothesis tested using a one-tailed test and a research hypothesis tested using a two-tailed test.

5. What does the critical value represent?

6. Given the following information, would your decision be to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis? Setting the level of significance at .05 for decision making, provide an explanation for your conclusion.

a. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the type of music a person listens to and his crime rate (p < .05).

In Hypothesis Testing, we typically deem a research hypothesis to be significant, if the odds of two means actually being equal are no greater than 1 in 20 or .05 (5%) or less.

b. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the amount of coffee consumption and GPA (p = .62).

c. The null hypothesis that there is a negative relationship between the number of hours worked and level of job satisfaction (p = .51).

7. Why is it harder to find a significant outcome (all other things being equal) when the research hypothesis is being tested at the .01 rather than the .05 level of significance?

At the .01 level, there is less room for error because the test is more rigorous.

8. Why should we think in terms of “failing to reject” the null rather than just accepting it?

9. When is it appropriate to use the one-sample z test?

10. What similarity does a z test have to a simple z or standard score?

11. For the following situations, write out a research hypothesis:

a. Bob wants to know if the weight loss for his group on the chocolate-only diet is representative of weight loss in a large population of middle-aged men.

b. The health department is charged with finding out if the rate of flu per thousand citizens for this past flu season is comparable to the average rate of the past 50 seasons.

c. Blair is almost sure that his monthly costs for the past year are not representative of his average monthly costs over the past 20 years.

12. There were about 15 flu cases per week, this flu season, in the Oshkosh school system. The weekly average for the entire state is 16 and the standard deviation, is 2.35. Are the kids in Oshkosh as sick as the kids throughout the state?

From Salkind (2011). Copyright © 2012 SAGE. All Rights Reserved. Adapted with permission.

Part B

Complete the following questions. Be specific and provide examples when relevant.

Cite any sources consistent with APA guidelines.

Question Answer
The average raw math achievement score for third graders at a Smith elementary school is 137; third graders statewide score an average of 124 with a standard deviation of 7. Are the Smith third graders better at math than third graders throughout the state? Perform the correct statistical test, applying the eight steps of the hypothesis testing process as demonstrated on pp. 185–187 of Statistics for People Who (Think they) Hate Statistics.
What is a research question that you would like to answer? Write the null and research hypotheses. Would you use a one- or two-tailed test? Why?
What do we mean when we say that a statistical result is significant? What is the difference between a statistically significant and a meaningful result? Why is statistical significance important? The meaning of a statistical result is significant is basically saying that the probability that an effect is not due to chance by itself, so basically it is a value judgment. In essence any result in statistics is not considered significant because it is important rather it has basically been predicted as unlikely to have occurred by chance alone. The difference between statistically significant and meaningful result is that statistically significant means that data is below a certain alpha level, which basically means that it is considered significant in terms of numbers. Now, meaningful result is something that is meaningful in real life. So for example” Say that 10% of heart surgeries fail, and the desired alpha level is 5%. This data would not be statistically significant because it is above the alpha level so statisticians would say it has not meaning, but that is does have meaningful results because in real life 10% of failed heart surgeries bears real life meaning to those that are considering having heart surgery. Statistical significance is important because it is a mathematical tool that is used to determine whether the outcome of an experiment is the result of a relationship between specific factors or merely the result of chance.
Describe a Type I error for the previous study that compares third graders’ math achievement. Describe a Type II error for that study. A Type II error of study could typically be presented in this example:

Copyright © XXXX by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.

Copyright © 2013 by University of Phoenix. All rights reserved.

Some questions in Part A require that you access data from Statistics for People Who (Think They) Hate Statistics. This data is available on the student website under the Student Test Resources link.

 

 

 

  1. For the following research questions, create one null hypothesis, one directional research hypothesis, and one nondirectional research hypothesis. 

 

  1. What are the effects of attention on out-of-seat classroom behavior?Research Hypothesis: There will be a relationship between the effects of attention on out-of-seat classroom behavior versus in-seat-classroom behavior.

     

  2. What is the relationship between the quality of a marriage and the quality of the spouses’ relationships with their siblings?Null Hypothesis: There will be no relationship in the relationship between the quality of a marriage and the quality of the spouses’ relationship with their siblings.

 

 

 

 

 

  1. What is the best way to treat an eating disorder?One Directional Research Hypothesis:

     

 

  1. Provide one research hypothesis and an equation for each of the following topics: 

 

  1. The amount of money spent on food among undergraduate students and undergraduate student-athletes 
  2. The average amount of time taken by white and brown rats to get out of a maze

 

 

 

 

 

  1. The effects of Drug A and Drug B on a disease 
  2. The time to complete a task in Method 1 and Method 2 

 

  1. Why does the null hypothesis presume no relationship between variables? 
  2. Create a research hypothesis tested using a one-tailed test and a research hypothesis tested using a two-tailed test.

 

 

 

  1. What does the critical value represent?

 

 

 

  1. Given the following information, would your decision be to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis? Setting the level of significance at .05 for decision making, provide an explanation for your conclusion. 

 

  1. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the type of music a person listens to and his crime rate (p < .05).In Hypothesis Testing, we typically deem a research hypothesis to be significant, if the odds of two means actually being equal are no greater than 1 in 20 or .05 (5%) or less.

     

  2. The null hypothesis that there is no relationship between the amount of coffee consumption and GPA (p = .62). 
  3. The null hypothesis that there is a negative relationship between the number of hours worked and level of job satisfaction (p = .51). 

 

  1. Why is it harder to find a significant outcome (all other things being equal) when the research hypothesis is being tested at the .01 rather than the .05 level of significance?At the .01 level, there is less room for error because the test is more rigorous.

     

  2. Why should we think in terms of “failing to reject” the null rather than just accepting it?

 

 

 

  1. When is it appropriate to use the one-sample z test? 
  2. What similarity does a z test have to a simple z or standard score? 
  3. For the following situations, write out a research hypothesis: 

 

  1. Bob wants to know if the weight loss for his group on the chocolate-only diet is representative of weight loss in a large population of middle-aged men.
  2. The health department is charged with finding out if the rate of flu per thousand citizens for this past flu season is comparable to the average rate of the past 50 seasons.
  3. Blair is almost sure that his monthly costs for the past year are not representative of his average monthly costs over the past 20 years. 

 

  1. There were about 15 flu cases per week, this flu season, in the Oshkosh school system. The weekly average for the entire state is 16 and the standard deviation, is 2.35. Are the kids in Oshkosh as sick as the kids throughout the state? 
 
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4mat Review Mcminn Psychology homework help

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4mat Review Mcminn Psychology homework help

The 4MAT Review is a way of responding to readings, lectures, and life experiences that requires you, the learner, to interact with new ideas on several levels. You will write a review for the McMinn textbook. In preparing your 4MAT Review, use each of the sections listed below with corresponding Level One headings in current APA format:

  1. Provide      a title page including only your name, the paper title (referring      to the book title), and the institutional affiliation (Liberty      University). Keep in mind that current APA standards recommend the title      length not exceed 12 words. Also, keep in mind that the Running Head of      your paper should be in the neighborhood of four to six words. All pages      must include a running head and page number, and all pages are double      spaced. Please include an abstract on page 2.
  2. Summary:      After introducing the name of      the book and author, summarize the book in approximately      2 pages. Be      appropriately concise but also be adequately complete in your ideas. Prove      that you comprehend the main ideas by writing a clear and succinct      summary. The summary is not      a commentary or listing of topics but rather a discussion of the core ideas (main ideas) in the      entire book. If you miss the main ideas, you lack an understanding of the      complete message of the book. The summary provides the      foundation for the rest of your 4MAT paper. Cite the book in-text at least      once per paragraph and include page numbers for direct quotations.
  3. Concrete      Responses: Be vulnerable. In approximately 1 page, write about a personal life episode that this book      triggered in your memory. Relate your story in first person,      describing action and quoting exact words you remember hearing or saying.      In the teaching style of Jesus, this is your own parable, case study, or      personal connection to the main ideas of the book. Your comments in this      section need to be clearly tied to main points from the book, not      tangential ideas. Connect your comments to the main points for the reader.
  4. Reflection:      This section is a short      critique or evaluation of the author’s main ideas; include positives/negatives      and strengths/weaknesses. You should consider new      questions that arose for you in response to what you have read and explore      concerns, implications, etc. Also, consider other sources that you have      encountered in your life up to this point that relate to this book, such      as other textbooks, journal articles, Scripture passages, and even ethical      codes such as those in the ACA Code of Ethics (2014). Provide this critique in approximately 1 ½ pages (sometimes      additional length may be needed to provide an adequate critique).
  5. Theological Interaction:      This section is a significant part of your paper (25 points out of 125      points), and you are required to reflect on the question assigned to you,      depending on the text you are reading for the particular 4MAT assignment. In approximately 2 pages

McMinn text. In approximately 2 pages, respond to the following issue: McMinn discusses guidelines when confronting sin during a counseling experience, and the lectures reviewed some factors as well. Why can a sensitive Christian counselor not just automatically and quickly confront obvious sin in the life of the client? Of the cautions mentioned by McMinn and other class sources, which ones to you think counselors most often overlook? Why? You are also encouraged to share any passages or stories in Scripture that directly relate to this issue. When identifying this story or stories, take time to clearly describe how this passage of Scripture directly relates to what you are communicating.

  1. Action: What      are you going to do about it? Develop action steps based on the core      points of the book. This section must be a description of how the main      ideas will affect your counseling. What professional changes will you      implement and share with others? Be precise in summarizing your action      steps and clearly connect your action steps to main points from the book.      This section must be 1      page or less.
  2. You      are also required to create a references page; on this page, you      must provide the complete reference citation for the book, along with      other materials, in compliance with current APA standards.

 

Create and submit these assignments in a Microsoft Word document; these assignments must be written at the graduate level and must be in current APA format.

Note: Use quotations strategically and sparingly; in a paper this size, do not use longer (block) quotations.

You are highly encouraged to use the following website as a reference for proper APA formatting (This is a sample APA formatted paper):

https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa_formatting_and_style_guide/apa_sample_paper.html

 
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Generalization homework help

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CHAPTER 14 Generalization

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

· Discuss the issues created by generalizing research results to other populations, including potential problems using college students as research participants.

· Discuss issues to consider regarding generalization of research results to other cultures and ethnic groups.

· Describe the potential problem of generalizing to other experimenters and suggest possible solutions.

· Discuss the importance of replications, distinguishing between exact replications and conceptual replications.

· Distinguish between narrative literature reviews and meta-analyses.

Page 292IN THIS CHAPTER, WE WILL CONSIDER THE ISSUE OF GENERALIZATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS. When a single study is conducted with a particular sample and procedure, can the results then be generalized to other populations of research participants, or to other ways of manipulating or measuring the variables? Recall from  Chapter 4  that internal validity refers to the ability to infer that there is a causal relationship between variables. External validity is the extent to which findings may be generalized.

GENERALIZING TO OTHER POPULATIONS

Even though a researcher may randomly assign participants to experimental conditions, rarely are participants randomly selected from the general population. As we noted in  Chapters 7  and  9 , the individuals who participate in psychological research are usually selected because they are available, and the most available population consists of college students—or more specifically, first- and second-year students enrolled in the introductory psychology course to satisfy a general education requirement. They may also be from a particular college or university, may be volunteers, or may be mostly males or mostly females. So, are our research findings limited to these types of subjects, or can we generalize our findings to a more general population? After considering these issues, we will examine the larger issue of culture and how research findings can be generalized to different cultural groups.

College Students

Smart (1966) found that college students were studied in over 70% of the articles published between 1962 and 1964 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology and the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Sears (1986) reported similar percentages in 1980 and 1985 in a variety of social psychology journals; Arnett (2008) found that 67% of the articles in the 2007 volume of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology used college student samples. The potential problem is that such studies use a highly restricted population. Sears points out that most of the students are first-year students and sophomores taking the introductory psychology class. They therefore tend to be young and to possess the characteristics of emerging adults: a sense of self-identity that is still developing, social and political attitudes that are in a state of flux, a high need for peer approval, and unstable peer relationships. They are intelligent with high cognitive abilities. Thus, what we know about “people in general” may actually be limited to a highly select and unusual group. Indeed, Peterson (2001) found that students, as a group, are more homogenous than nonstudent samples. That is, students are more similar to each other than adults are similar to other adults in the general population.

Research by Henry (2008) illustrates how the use of college students may affect the external validity of research on prejudice. In his sample of articles Page 293from 1990 to 2005, an increasing percentage of studies used college students as participants. Further, in looking at the actual results of studies on prejudice that compared college students with adults, he reported a variety of differences among adults and college students. For example, college students were less conservative and rated women and ethnic minorities more favorably.

Volunteers

Researchers usually must ask people to volunteer to participate in their research. At many colleges, introductory psychology students are required either to volunteer for research or to complete an alternative project. If you are studying populations other than college students, you are even more dependent on volunteers—for example, asking people at a homeowners’ association meeting to participate in a study of marital interaction or conducting research on the Internet in which people must go to your web page and then agree to participate in the study, or conducting a telephone survey of county residents to determine health care needs. In all these cases, external validity of the findings may be limited because the data from volunteers may be different from what would be obtained with a more general sample. Some research indicates that volunteers differ in various ways from nonvolunteers. In their comprehensive study on the topic, Rosenthal and Rosnow (1975) reported that volunteers tend to be more highly educated, of a higher socioeconomic status, more in need of approval, and more social.

Further, different kinds of people volunteer for different kinds of experiments. In colleges, there may be a sign-up board with the titles of many studies listed or a web page that manages research participants and volunteer opportunities for the university. Different types of people may be drawn to the study titled “problem solving” than to the one titled “interaction in small groups.” Available evidence indicates that the title does influence who signs up (Hood & Back, 1971; Silverman & Margulis, 1973).

Online Research

Another important consideration arises when asking participants to volunteer for online surveys and experiments. Researchers can find potential participants through online survey design services. Psychologists are increasingly using Amazon Mechanical Turk ( https://www.mturk.com ; Jacquet, 2011), a website for recruiting people to work on many types of tasks including participating in research for a specified payment. This sort of sampling strategy has important implications for external validity. While the online sample is more diverse than the typical college student sample, there are still generalization issues because Internet users represent a unique demographic. The Pew Research Center’s Internet and American Life Project (Pew Internet, 2010) found that living in an urban/suburban area, being college educated, being younger, and having a higher income are all related to reporting more time online. Thus, by asking Page 294for volunteers for an online survey, researchers are sampling from a particular demographic that may not generalize well to the population of interest.

Gender

Sometimes, researchers use only males or only females (or a very disproportionate ratio of males to females) simply because this is convenient or the procedures seem better suited to a particular gender. Given the possible differences between males and females, however, the results of such studies may not be generalizable (Denmark, Russo, Frieze, & Sechzer, 1988). Denmark et al. provide an example of studies on contraception practices that use only females because of stereotypical assumptions that only females are responsible for contraception. They also point out several other ways that gender bias may arise in psychological research, including confounding gender with age or job status and selecting response measures that are gender-stereotyped. The solution is to be aware of possible gender differences and include both males and females in our research investigations. Moreover, it is important to recognize the ways that males and females might differentially interpret independent variable manipulations or questions asked in a questionnaire.

Locale

The location that participants are recruited from can also have an impact on a study’s external validity. Participants in one locale may differ from participants in another locale. For example, students at UCLA may differ from students at a nearby state university, who in turn may differ from students at a community college. People in Iowa may differ from people in New York City. Thus, a finding obtained with the students in one type of educational setting or in one geographic region may not generalize to people in other settings or regions. In fact, studies have explored how personality traits like extraversion (the tendency to seek social stimulation) and openness to new experiences vary across geographic areas. Rentfrow, Gosling, and Potter (2008) looked at geographic differences in personality traits among citizens of various U.S. states and found extraversion to vary by state. People in midwestern states tended to be more extraverted than people in northeastern states, and people in western states tended to be more open to new experiences. Thus, a study conducted in one location may not generalize well to another, particularly if the variables in question are related to location in some way.

Culture

Whether theories and research findings generalize across cultures is a critically important issue. Some observers of current psychological research have been very critical of the types of samples employed in behavioral research. Based on analyses of published research by Arnett (2008) and others, Henrich, Heine, and Norenzayan (2010) contend that psychology is built on the study of WEIRD Page 295(Western, Educated, Industrialized, Rich, Democratic) people. In many cases, research samples consist primarily of college students from the United States, other English-speaking countries, and Europe. Ultimately, researchers wish to discover aspects of human behavior that have universal applications but in fact cannot generalize beyond their limited samples. This is, at its heart, a critique of the external validity of behavioral research: Does our human behavioral research generalize to all humans, or is it really a study of the WEIRD?

Clearly, if psychologists want to understand human behavior, they must understand human behavior across and among cultures (Henrich et al., 2010; Miller, 1999). Miller described research on self-concept by Kitayama, Markus, Matsumoto, and Norasakkunkit (1997) to illustrate the benefits of incorporating culture into psychological theory. Traditional theories of self-concept are grounded in the culture of the United States and Western Europe; the “self” is an individualistic concept where people are independent from others and self-enhancement comes from individual achievements. Kitayama and his colleagues take a broader, cultural perspective: In contrast to the U.S. meaning of self, in other cultures the “self” is a collective concept in which self-esteem is derived from relationships with others. Often, Japanese engage in self-criticism, which can be seen as relationship-maintaining, whereas Americans work to maintain and enhance self-esteem—thus, very different activities contribute to a positive self-concept in the two cultures (Kitayama et al., 1997). This is a very common theme in research that incorporates culture in psychological processes: “The significance of self-esteem, however, may be much more specific to a culture than has typically been supposed in the literature” (p. 1262).

Much of this cultural research centers on identifying similarities and differences that may exist in personality and other psychological characteristics, as well as ways that individuals from different cultures respond to the same environments (Matsumoto, 1994). Research by Kim, Sherman, and Taylor (2008) provides another example of the limits of external validity across cultural groups. This research focused on how people from different cultures use social support to cope with stress. In reviewing the research on the topic, they concluded that Asians and Asian Americans might benefit from different styles of social support as compared with European Americans. For example, Asian Americans are more likely to benefit from support that does not involve the sort of intense disclosure of personal stressful events and feelings that is the hallmark of support in many European American groups. Rather, they suggest that Asians and Asian Americans may benefit more from support that comes with the comforts of proximity (being with close friends) rather than sharing.

These examples all focused on differences among cultures. Many studies also find similarities across cultures. Evolutionary psychologists, for instance, often conduct studies in different cultural groups because they are looking for similarities across cultures in order to see if a particular behavior or attitude can be tied to our evolutionary past. For example, Singh, Dixson, Jessop, Morgan, and Dixson (2010) wanted to see if a particular aspect of beauty that is tied to greater reproductive success—namely waist-to-hip ratio (e.g., the ratio for Page 296a 25-inch waist and 35-inch hips is .71), which is related to sex hormones and thus fertility—would be seen as attractive across cultures. Diverse groups from Africa, Samoa, Indonesia, and New Zealand evaluated photographs of females with small and large waist-to-hip ratios. The researchers found that indeed, low waist-to-hip ratio among females was seen as more attractive across all these groups. In this example, the results obtained in one culture do generalize to other cultures.

Nonhuman Animals

We noted in  Chapter 3  that about 7% of psychological research is conducted with nonhuman animals. Almost all of this research is done with rats, mice, and birds. Most research with other species is conducted to study the behavior of those animals directly to gather information that may help with the survival of endangered species and increase our understanding of our bonds with nonhuman animals such as dogs, cats, and horses ( http://www.apa-hai.org/human-animal-interaction ).

The basic research that psychologists conduct with nonhuman animals is usually done with the expectation that the findings can be generalized to humans. This research is important because the research problems that are addressed require procedures such as long-term observation that could not be done with human samples. We do expect that we can generalize as our underlying biological and behavioral patterns are shared. In fact, the value of studying nonhuman animals has been demonstrated by research that does apply to humans. These applications include the biological bases of memory, food preferences, sexual behavior, choice behavior, and drug addictions. The American Psychological Association has prepared a brochure on animal research: ( http://www.apa.org/research/responsible/research-animals.pdf ).

In Defense of College Students

It is easy to criticize research on the basis of subject characteristics, yet criticism by itself does not mean that results cannot be generalized. Although we need to be concerned about the potential problems of generalizing from unique populations such as college students (cf. Sears, 1986), we should also keep several things in mind when thinking about this issue. First, criticisms of the use of any particular type of subject, such as college students, in a study should be backed with good reasons that a relationship would not be found with other types of subjects. College students, after all, arehuman, and researchers should not be blamed for not worrying about generalization to a particular type of subject if there is no good reason to do so. Moreover, college student bodies are increasingly diverse and increasingly representative of the society as a whole (although college students will always be characterized as having the ability and motivation to pursue a college degree). Second, replication of research studies provides a safeguard against the limited external validity of a single study. Studies are replicated at other colleges using different mixes of students, and Page 297many findings first established with college students are later applied to other populations, such as children, aging adults, and people in other countries. It is also worth noting that Internet samples are increasingly used in many types of studies. Although such studies raise their own issues of external validity, they frequently complement studies based on college student samples.

GENERALIZING ACROSS METHODS

The person who actually conducts the experiment is the source of another external validity problem. In most research, only one experimenter is used, and rarely is much attention paid to the personal characteristics of the experimenter (McGuigan, 1963). The main goal is to make sure that any influence the experimenter has on subjects is constant throughout the experiment. There is always the possibility, however, that the results are generalizable only to certain types of experimenters.

Some of the important characteristics of experimenters have been discussed by Kintz and his colleagues (Kintz, Delprato, Mettee, Persons, & Schappe, 1965). These include the experimenter’s personality and gender and the amount of practice in the role of experimenter. A warm, friendly experimenter will almost certainly produce different results from a cold, unfriendly experimenter. Participants also may behave differently with male and female experimenters. It has even been shown that rabbits learn faster when trained by experienced experimenters (Brogden, 1962)! The influence of the experimenter may depend as well on the characteristics of the participants. For example, participants seem to perform better when tested by an experimenter of the other sex (Stevenson & Allen, 1964).

One solution to the problem of generalizing to other experimenters is to use two or more experimenters. A fine example of the use of multiple experimenters is a study by Rubin (1975), who sent several male and female experimenters to the Boston airport to investigate self-disclosure. The experimenters revealed different kinds of information about themselves to both male and female travelers and recorded the passengers’ self-disclosures in return. One interesting result was that women tended to reveal more about themselves to male experimenters, and men tended to reveal more about themselves to female experimenters.

Pretests and Generalization

Researchers are often faced with the decision of whether to give a pretest. Intuitively, pretesting seems to be a good idea. The researcher can be sure that the groups are equivalent on the pretest, and it is often more satisfying to see that individuals changed their scores than it is to look only at group means on a posttest. A pretest also enables the researcher to assess mortality (attrition) effects when it is likely that some participants will withdraw from an experiment. Page 298If you give a pretest, you can determine whether the people who withdrew are different from those who completed the study.

Pretesting, however, may limit the ability to generalize to populations that did not receive a pretest. (cf. Lana, 1969). Simply taking the pretest may cause subjects to behave differently than they would without the pretest. Recall from  Chapter 8  that a Solomon four-group design (Solomon, 1949) can be used in situations in which a pretest is desirable but there is concern over the possible impact of taking the pretest. In the Solomon four-group design, half of the participants are given the pretest; the other half receive the posttest only. That is, the same experiment is conducted with and without the pretest. Mortality effects can be assessed in the pretest conditions. Also, the researcher can examine whether there is an interaction between the independent variable and the pretest: Are posttest scores on the dependent variable different depending on whether the pretest was given? Sometimes, researchers find that it is not feasible to conduct the study with all four groups in a single experiment. In this case, the first study can include the pretest; the study can be replicated later without the pretest.

Generalizing from Laboratory Settings

Research conducted in a laboratory setting has the advantage of allowing the experimenter to study the impact of independent variables under highly controlled conditions. The internal validity of the research is the primary consideration. The question arises, however, as to whether the artificiality of the laboratory setting limits the ability to generalize what is observed in the laboratory to real-life settings.

Mook (1983) articulated one response to the artificiality issue: Generalization to real-life settings is not relevant when the purpose of the study was to investigate causal relationships under carefully controlled conditions. Mook is concerned that a “knee-jerk” criticism of laboratory research on the basis of external validity is too common. Good research is what is most important.

Another response to the laboratory artificiality criticism is to examine the results of field experiments. Recall from  Chapter 4  that in a field experiment, the researcher manipulates the independent variable in a natural setting—a factory, a school, or a street corner, for example.

Anderson, Lindsay, and Bushman (1999) asked whether laboratory and field experiments that examine the same variables do in fact produce the same results. To answer this question, they found 38 pairs of studies for which a laboratory investigation had a field experiment counterpart. The studies were drawn from a variety of research areas including aggression, helping, memory, leadership style, and depression. Results of the laboratory and field experiments were in fact very similar—the effect size of the independent variable on the dependent variable was very similar in the two types of studies. Thus, even though lab and field experiments are conducted in different settings, the results Page 299are complementary rather than contradictory. When findings are replicated using multiple methods, our confidence in the external validity of the findings increases.

SUPPORTING GOOD EXTERNAL VALIDITY

It may seem as if no research can possibly be generalizable! In some ways, this is true. Furthermore, it can be very difficult to understand the extent to which a study is generalizable; external validity is an aspect of a study that we try to assess, but cannot truly know. How, then, can we support good external validity? There are a few ways that external validity can be supported.

The key way that external validity can be supported is related to a study’s methodology. Using a census, or a random sample will always produce better external validity than using a nonrandom sample. This, of course, is not always possible. Next, we will explore a few other ways in which external validity can be supported.

Generalization as a Statistical Interaction

The problem of generalization can be thought of as an interaction in a factorial design (see  Chapter 10 ). An interaction occurs when a relationship between variables exists under one condition but not another or when the nature of the relationship is different in one condition than in another. Thus, if you question the generalizability of a study that used only males, you are suggesting that there is an interaction between gender and the independent variable. Suppose, for example, that a study examines the relationship between crowding and aggression among males and reports that crowding is associated with higher levels of aggression. You might then question whether the results are generalizable to females.

Figure 14.1  shows four potential outcomes of a hypothetical study on crowding and aggression that tested both males and females. In each graph, the relationship between crowding and aggression for males has been maintained. In Graph A, there is no interaction—the behavior of males and females is virtually identical. Thus, the results of the original all-male study could be generalized to females. In Graph B, there is also no interaction; the effect of crowding is identical for males and females. However, in this graph, males are more aggressive than females. Although such a difference is interesting, it is not a factor in generalization because the overall relationship between crowding and aggression is present for both males and females.

Graphs C and D do show interactions. In both, the original results with males cannot be generalized to females. In Graph C, there is no relationship between crowding and aggression for females. In Graph D, the interaction tells us that a positive relationship between crowding and aggression exists for males but that a negative relationship exists for females. As it turns out, Graph D describes the results of several studies on this topic (cf. Freedman, Levy, Buchanan, & Price, 1972).

Page 300

 

FIGURE 14.1

Outcomes of a hypothetical experiment on crowding and aggression

Note: The presence of an interaction indicates that the results for males cannot be generalized to females.

Researchers can address issues of external validity that stem from the use of different populations by including subject type as a variable in the study. By including variables such as gender, age, or ethnic group in the design of the study, the results may be analyzed to determine whether there are interaction effects like the ones illustrated in  Figure 14.1 .

The Importance of Replications

Replication of research is a way of overcoming any problems of generalization that occur in a single study. There are two types of replications to consider: exact replications and conceptual replications.

Exact replications An exact replication is an attempt to replicate precisely the procedures of a study to see whether the same results are obtained. A researcher who obtains an unexpected finding will frequently attempt Page 301a replication to make sure that the finding is reliable. If you are starting your own work on a problem, you may try to replicate a crucial study to make sure that you understand the procedures and can obtain the same results. Often, exact replications occur when a researcher builds on the findings of a prior study. For example, suppose you are intrigued by Singh et al.’s (2010) research on waist-to-hip ratio that was mentioned previously. Singh reports that males rate females with a ratio of .70 as most attractive. In your research, you might replicate the procedures used in the original study and expand on the original research. For example, you might study this phenomenon with males similar to those in the original sample as well as males from different cultures or age groups. When you replicate the original research findings using very similar procedures, your confidence in the external validity of the original findings is increased.

The “Mozart effect” provides us with an interesting example of the importance of replications. In the original study by Rauscher, Shaw, and Ky (1993), college students listened to 10 minutes of a Mozart sonata. These students then showed better performance on a spatial-reasoning measure drawn from the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale than students exposed to a relaxation tape or simple silence. This finding received a great deal of attention in the press as people quickly generalized it to the possibility of increasing children’s intelligence with Mozart sonatas. In fact, one state governor began producing Mozart CDs to distribute in maternity wards, and entrepreneurs began selling Mozart kits to parents over the Internet. Over the next few years, however, there were many failures to replicate the Mozart effect (see Steele, Bass, & Crook, 1999). We noted above that failures to replicate may occur because the exact conditions for producing the effect were not used. In this case, Rauscher and Shaw (1998) responded to the many replication failures by precisely describing the conditions necessary to produce the Mozart effect. However, Steele et al. (1999) and McCutcheon (2000) were unable to obtain the effect even though they followed the recommendations of Rauscher and Shaw. Research on the Mozart effect continues. Some recent findings suggest that the effect is limited to music that also increases arousal; it is this arousal that can cause better performance following exposure to the music (Thompson, Schellenberg, & Husain, 2001). Bangerter and Heath (2004) present a detailed analysis of the development of the research on the Mozart effect.

A single failure to replicate does not reveal much, though; it is unrealistic to assume, on the basis of a single failure to replicate, that the previous research is necessarily invalid. Failures to replicate share the same problems as nonsignificant results, discussed in  Chapter 13 . A failure to replicate could mean that the original results are invalid, but it could also mean that the replication attempt was flawed. For example, if the replication is based on the procedure as reported in a journal article, it is possible that the article omitted an important aspect of the procedure. For this reason, it is usually a good idea to write to the researcher to obtain detailed information on all of the materials that were used in the study.

Page 302Several scientific societies are encouraging systematic replications of important scientific findings. The journal Perspectives on Psychological Science (published by the Association for Psychological Science) is sponsoring the publication of Registered Research Replications ( http://www.psychologicalscience.org/index.php/replication ). Multiple groups of researchers will undertake replications of important studies using procedures that are made public before initiating the research. When completed, all of the replications will be described in a single report. In addition to the Psychological Science initiative, the online journal PLOS ONE (Public Library of Science) has developed the Reproducibility Initiative to encourage independent replication of research in the clinical sciences (Pattinson, 2012). Such developments should lead to greater understanding of the generalizability of research findings.

Conceptual replications A conceptual replication is the use of different procedures to replicate a research finding. In a conceptual replication, researchers attempt to understand the relationships among abstract conceptual variables by using new, or different, operational definitions of those variables. Conceptual replications are even more important than exact replications in furthering our understanding of behavior.

In most research, a key goal is to discover whether a relationship between conceptual variables exists. In the original Mozart effect study, researchers examined the effect of exposure to classical music on spatial reasoning. These are conceptual variables; in the actual study, specific operational definitions of the variables were used. Exposure to classical music was operationalized as 10 minutes of exposure to the Mozart Sonata for Two Pianos in D Major. Spatial reasoning was operationalized as performance on a particular spatial reasoning measure.

In a conceptual replication, the same independent variable is operationalized in a different way, and the dependent variable may be measured in a different way, too. Conceptual replications are extremely important in the social sciences because the variables used are complex and can be operationalized in different ways. Complete understanding of any variable involves studying the variable using a variety of operational definitions. A crucial generalization question is whether the relationship holds when other ways of manipulating or measuring the variables are studied. Sometimes the conceptual replication may involve an alternative stimulus (e.g., a different Mozart sonata, a selection by a different composer) or an alternative dependent measure (e.g., a different spatial-reasoning task). Or as we previously noted, the same variables are sometimes studied in both laboratory and field settings. When conceptual replications produce similar results, our confidence in the generalizability of relationships between variables is greatly increased.

This discussion should also alert you to an important way of thinking about research findings. The findings represent relationships between conceptual variables but are grounded in specific operations. You may read about the specific methods employed in a study conducted 20 years ago and question Page 303whether the study could be replicated today. You might also speculate that the methods used in a study are so unusual that they could never generalize to other situations. These concerns are not as serious when placed within the context of conceptual replications because, although operational definitions can change over time, the underlying conceptual variable often remains more consistent. Admittedly, a specific method from a study conducted at one time might not be effective today, given changes in today’s political and cultural climate. A conceptual replication of the manipulation, however, would demonstrate that the relationship between the conceptual theoretical variables is still present. Similarly, the narrow focus of a particular study is less problematic if the general finding is replicated with different procedures.

Evaluating Generalizations via Literature Reviews and Meta-analyses

Researchers have traditionally drawn conclusions about the external validity of research findings by conducting literature reviews. In a literature review, a reviewer reads a number of studies that address a particular topic and then writes a paper that summarizes and evaluates the literature. The Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association provides the following description: “Literature reviews, including research syntheses and meta-analyses, are critical evaluations of material that has already been published.… By organizing, integrating, and evaluating previously published material, authors of literature reviews consider the progress of research toward clarifying a problem” (APA, 2010, p. 10). The literature review provides information that (1) summarizes what has been found, (2) tells the reader which findings are strongly supported and which are only weakly supported in the literature, (3) points out inconsistent findings and areas in which research is lacking, and (4) discusses future directions for research.

Sometimes a review will be a narrative in which the author provides descriptions of research findings and draws conclusions about the literature. The conclusions in a narrative literature review are based on the subjective impressions of the reviewer. Another technique for comparing a large number of studies in an area is meta-analysis (Borenstein, Hedges, Higgins, & Rothstein, 2009). In a meta-analysis, the researcher combines the actual results of a number of studies. The analysis consists of a set of statistical procedures that employ effect sizes to compare a given finding across many different studies. Instead of relying on judgments obtained in a narrative literature review, you can draw statistical conclusions from this material. The statistical procedures need not concern you. They involve examining several features of the results of studies, including the effect sizes and significance levels obtained. The important point here is that meta-analysis is a method for determining the reliability of a finding by examining the results from many different studies.

Stewart and Chambless (2009) conducted a meta-analysis of research on the effectiveness of cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) for anxiety disorders. Page 304Both a traditional literature review and a meta-analysis begin with a body of previous research on a topic; in this case, Stewart and Chambless located 56 studies using CBT with adults diagnosed with an anxiety disorder (including panic disorder, social anxiety, post traumatic stress disorder, generalized anxiety disorder, and obsessive-compulsive disorder). Studies that included an additional medication treatment were excluded. The researchers performed a statistical analysis of the results of these studies and concluded that CBT was effective in treating all of the types of anxiety disorders. In a traditional literature review, it can be difficult to provide the type of general conclusion that was reached with the meta-analysis because it is necessary to integrate information from many studies with different experimental designs, disorders, and measures of anxiety.

One of the most important reasons a meta-analysis can lead to clear conclusions is that meta-analysis studies focus on effect size (recall that an effect size represents the extent to which two variables are associated, see  page 256 ). A typical table in a meta-analysis will show the effect size obtained in a number of studies along with a summary of the average effect size across the studies. More important, the analysis allows comparisons of the effect sizes in different types of studies to allow tests of hypotheses. For example, Miller and Downey (1999) analyzed the results of 71 studies that examined the relationship between weight and self-esteem.  Table 14.1  shows a few of the findings. The effect size r averaged across all studies was −.18: Heavier weight is associated with lower self-esteem. However, several variables moderate the relationship between weight and self-esteem. Thus, the effect size is larger when the weight variable is a report of self-perceived rather than actual weight, and the relationship between weight and self-esteem is somewhat larger for females than for males. Finally, the effect is greater among individuals with a high socioeconomic background.

TABLE 14.1 Some meta-analysis findings for weight and self-esteem

 

Page 305Both narrative reviews and meta-analyses provide valuable information and in fact are often complementary. A meta-analysis allows statistical, quantitative conclusions whereas a narrative review identifies trends in the literature and directions for future study—a more qualitative approach. A study by Bushman and Wells (2001) points to an interesting way in which knowledge of meta-analysis can improve the way that we interpret information for literature reviews.

The reviewers in their study were undergraduates who were provided with both titles and information about the findings of 20 studies dealing with the effect of attitude similarity on attraction. Sometimes the titles were salient with respect to the findings (“Birds of a Feather Flock Together”) and others were nonsalient (“Research Studies Who Likes Whom”). Salient titles are obviously easier to remember. When asked to draw conclusions about the findings, naive reviewers with no knowledge of meta-analysis overestimated the size of the similarity–attraction relationship when provided with salient titles. Other reviewers were given brief training in meta-analysis; these reviewers drew accurate conclusions about the actual findings. That is, they were not influenced by the article title. Thus, even without conducting a meta-analysis, a background in meta-analysis can be beneficial when reviewing research findings.

USING RESEARCH TO IMPROVE LIVES

In a presidential address to the American Psychological Association, George Miller (1969) discussed “psychology as a means of promoting human welfare” and spoke of “giving psychology away.” Miller was addressing the broadest issue of generalization, taking what we know about human behavior and allowing it to be applied by many people in all areas of everyday life. Zimbardo’s (2004) presidential address to the American Psychological Association described many ways in which Miller’s call to give psychology away is being honored. The impact of psychological research can be seen in areas such as health (programs to promote health-related behaviors related to stress, heart disease, and sexually transmitted diseases), law and criminal justice (providing data on the effects of 6- versus 12-person juries and showing how law enforcement personnel can improve the accuracy of eyewitness identification), education (providing methods for encouraging academic performance or reducing conflict among different ethnic groups), and work environments (providing workers with more control and improving the ways that people interact with computers and other machines in the workplace). In addition, psychologists are using the Internet to provide the public with information on parenting, education, mental health, and Page 306many other topics—for example, the websites of the American Psychological Association and the Association for Psychological Science ( http://www.apa.org ;  http://www.psychologicalscience.org ), national mental health resource websites ( http://www.mentalhealth.gov/  and  http://www.samhsa.gov/ ), and many individual psychologists who are sharing their expertise with the public.

We have discussed only a few of the ways that basic research has been applied to improve people’s lives. Despite all the potential problems of generalizing research findings that were highlighted in this chapter, the evidence suggests that we can generalize our findings to many aspects of our lives.

ILLUSTRATIVE ARTICLE: GENERALIZING RESULTS

Driving around in a 4,000-pound automobile is a dangerous thing. Motor vehicle accidents are among the leading preventable causes of death in the United States every year. Distraction is one of the most common causes of automobile accidents, and talking to another person is a very common distraction.

In an effort to observe the impact of conversation on driving, Drews, Pasupathi, and Strayer (2008) conducted a study using a driving simulator that tracks errors committed by drivers. The researchers varied the type of conversation. In one condition, participants had a conversation with a passenger; in another condition, participants talked on a cell phone. There was also a no conversation, control condition. As you would expect, having any conversation resulted in more driving errors. However, the number of driving errors was highest in the cell phone condition.

For this exercise, acquire and read the article:

Drews, F., Pasupathi, M., & Strayer, D. (2008). Passenger and cell phone conversations in simulated driving. Journal of Experimental Psychology: Applied, 14, 392–400. doi:10.1037/a0013119

After reading the article, consider the following:

1. Describe how well you think the sample of participants in this study generalizes to other groups of people. What about age? What about sex?

2. In this study, participants were told to have a conversation about a time when “their lives were threatened.” Do you think that the results of this study would be different if the conversation were about something else? How so? Why?

3. Do you think that the findings from this study would generalize to other cultures? Do you think that a sample of college students in Mexico, Italy, and Germany would generate similar results? Why or why not?

4. How well do you think the driving simulator generalizes to real-world driving? What would you change to improve the generalizability of the simulator?Page 307

5. Evaluate the internal validity of this study. Explain your answer.

6. Evaluate the external validity of this study. Explain your answer.

Study Terms

Conceptual replication ( p. 302 )

Exact replication ( p. 300 )

External validity ( p. 292 )

Literature review ( p. 303 )

Meta-analysis ( p. 303 )

Replication ( p. 300 )

Solomon four-group design ( p. 298 )

Review Questions

1. What is external validity?

2. Why should a researcher be concerned about generalizing to other populations?

3. How can the fact that most studies are conducted with college students, volunteers, and individuals from a limited location and culture potentially impact external validity?

4. How does the use of the Internet to recruit subjects and collect data impact external validity?

5. What is the source of the problem of generalizing to other experimenters? How can this problem be solved?

6. Why is it important to pretest a problem for generalization? Discuss the reasons why including a pretest may affect the ability to generalize results.

7. Distinguish between an exact replication and a conceptual replication. What is the value of a conceptual replication?

8. What is a meta-analysis?

Activities

1. It is easy to collect data for experiments and surveys on the Internet. Anyone in the world who is connected to the Internet can participate in an online experiment or survey. Use a search term such as “psychological research on the Internet” to find some studies that are being conducted. Page 308What issues of generalization might arise when interpreting the results of such studies? Does the computer aspect of the research make this research less generalizable than traditional research, or does the fact that people throughout the world can participate make it more generalizable? Could you empirically answer this question?

2. Use PsycINFO to find abstracts of articles that included race, ethnicity, gender, or nationality as a key variable. Consider topics such as body image, rumination, academic achievement, or identity development. What conclusions do the authors of these studies draw about generalization?

3. Find a meta-analysis published in a journal; two good sources are the Review of Educational Research and Psychological Bulletin. What conclusions were drawn from the meta-analysis? How were studies selected for the analysis? How was the concept of effect size discussed in the meta-analysis?

Generalization homework help

 

 

Week Eight Homework Exercise

PSYCH/610 Version 2

 1

University of Phoenix Material

Week Eight Homework Exercise

Answer the following questions covering material from Ch. 14 of Methods in Behavioral Research:

1. What is replication, and what role does it play in increasing the external validity or generalizability of a study? In what way is the IRB involved in using participants in a research study?

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of using college students as participants in research studies?

3. What potential problems can arise from generalization of results to different cultures or ethnic groups?

4. What is meta-analysis, and how is it useful to practitioners and scholars?

5. True or false: In many cases, meta analyses involves calculating an average effect size for a relationship between variables.

6. True or false: Many constructs, such as physical attractiveness and self-esteem, appear constant across cultures; thus, external validity is less of a concern when conducting research on such constructs. Provide a brief explanation of your answer.

7. Summarize the main points of the course, emphasizing the importance of research to the psychology profession.

 
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EVALUATION OF TEST MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES

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EVALUATION OF TEST MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES

Running Head: EVALUATION OF TEST MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES 1.

 

 

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EVALUATION OF TEST MATERIALS AND PROCEDURES

Test Items and Format

The Autism Spectrum Rating Scale is a norm-referenced test, meaning that the ASRS looked at what behaviors are most commonly presented in ASD and in an individuals age range. The scale allows for rapid assessment, a family member, caregiver, teacher, or any adult figure that has known the child for at least 4 weeks can administer the test. Administering the test can take place in a home, school, parks, or on vacation. If the individual requires the ASRS is available in English or Spanish, allowing for administration in either format. An online format or a paper copy is available that is available for administration and scoring. Also, a software system is available in regards to scoring. This assessment is intended for individuals who have an Autism Spectrum Disorder and are between the ages of 2-18 years of age. There are two different forms that can be utilized according to age and attention span. Children are dived into two groups, group one is designed for children between 2-5 years of age and group two contains children between 6-18 years of age. To make a test measure fair one looks at the content found within the assessment and the types of formatting options available. Myers and McReynolds (2014) conducted a research study regarding behavior-rating scales to see how effective it is in identifying children with autism. Why, one may ask is it important to identify children at a young age with ASD? To provide accurate and early intervention services to individuals with an autism spectrum diagnosis, as early intervention has been proven to be most effective. Autism Spectrum Disorder is difficult to diagnose, because ASD is a spanning a broad range of severity across multiple ages and developmental level. To evaluate the effectiveness of a broadband behavior rating scale within rural United States. Participants were diagnosed with a developmental disorder and presented behavior issues. Out of the 156 participants 59 males and 11 females with ASD were present. Psychological evaluations were conducted for children between birth and up to 8 years of age for 30 months. The parents of the children between two years of age and 71 months were also asked to participate. 169 agreed and one parent chose not to participate. The results of the research showed that the most effective scales for diagnosing ASD are: withdrawn/ depressed, social problems, thought problems, aggressive behavior, pervasive developmental problems, anxiety, functional communication, and hyperactivity. If one is to compare the results of this research study one can see how the ASRS addresses each one of the characteristics Myers, and McReynolds (2014) found to be most effective in addressing ASD and behavior issues (Myers, Gross, and McReynolds, 2014). The content of the ASRS is broken down into 13 categories. Skills tested are separated into the following subsets: social/communication, unusual behaviors, peer socialization, social/ emotional reciprocity, stereotypy, adult socialization, behavioral rigidity, atypical language, sensory sensitivity, attention/ self-regulation, and short form score (Goldstein and Naglieri 2010a). The questions the ASRS address are based on parent and teacher ratings of 2560 children from the United States. The short forms are compromised of 15 questions that have been shown through research to be the most effective when measuring behavior. 71 questions are included in the long form of the assessment (Jones, 2013). When either a short or long form is used a parent or caregiver questionnaire is also filled out (2010b). Parental or caregiver questionaries’ are in the form of a 5-point Likert response scale (2009a). The score of the assessment is then based on the DSM V criteria. The format of the ASRS can be given in English or in Spanish. Also, there is an ASRS non-verbal assessment that can be utilized. Using the ASRS scoring guide can provide three different reports. The first report it can provide is the interpretive report, which is a detailed result from the administration of the test. A comparative report is the second report the software is able to produce, which involves a multi-rater perspective from two or more assessments of the ASRS. Lastly the software has the capability to provide progress-monitoring reports, which provide an overview of change over time by using at most four assessments of the ASRS. When an individual is evaluating the positives of the ASRS, the format of the test is simple, logical, easy to administer, and great at identifying ASD/ interventions/ as well as providing ongoing evaluations. The publishing website overs the option to purchase manuals, scoring guides, as well as take classes on scoring methods. The test presents a high rate of inter-rater reliability, class B instruments, a high rate of validity is seen from the scientific community, as well as positive feedback from parents and teachers. The negatives regarding the test are that a parent or a caregiver cannot complete the scoring method. A class level of a C is required in regards to scoring. Level C consists of a master degree in a health-related field or a bachelor’s degree in occupational therapy (2009b).

When one is summarizing the quality and appropriateness of the test items the ASRS, provides a comprehensive evaluation for individuals with ASD. The quality found with the ASRS is highly recommended and the statistical data prove that the assessment is reliable, valid, and accurate. The format is broad and covers a wide array of typical behavior problems associated with ASD. The directions when utilizing this assessment are simple and easy to follow. A manual is available to purchase to assist in administration. Answer sheets and score reports can all be received using an online format.

Fair and Appropriate Materials

To minimize offensive content or language with the ASRS, a study that asked teachers and parents to identify appropriate subscales. Also, the content was analyzed by the test developers to ensure that the assessment met the standards of the DSM-V (Goldstein and Naglieri 2010a). The DSM-V uses person-first language to reduce negative aspects in language. Recently, the ASRS was tested in China in regards to norms, the study conducted a pilot study before the implementation of the actual study to reduce offensive language and address content fairness (Zhou, Zhang, Zou, Luo, Xia, Wu, Wang, 2017).

In regards to appropriate modifications the ASRS is accessibility (Cohen, and Swerdlik, 2018). Positive aspects of test materials can be seen in the formatting that serves to support individuals that speak English or Spanish. Having a test that can only be utilized in two different languages is beneficial because it allows for a variety of individuals to utilize this assessment. The ASRS also identifies individuals with mild, moderate, and severe learning disabilities (2010b). Individuals that speak infrequently or not at all can also utilize the Autism Spectrum Rating Scale (Goldstein and Naglieri 2010c). Allowing for a prorating method to be utilized when working with an individual with no verbal or limited verbal function. Reliability and validity of the prorated ASRS the values are similar and in some cases higher. A negative aspect that was noted was the limited information for individuals with physical disabilities. Simek, and Wahlberg, (2011) also evaluated the validity of the Autism Spectrum Rating Scale. The article wanted to ensure that the ASRS has fairness in regards to criterion-related and construct validity. In regards to criterion validity, children with ASD were compared to children throughout the United States and children with other clinical diagnoses. Lastly, this article addresses construct validity, which shows that the ASRS is broken up into parts. In the 2-5 year ASRS a two-part solution was found to be most suitable. The first category addresses socialization and communication. The second category is related to stereotypical behaviors, sensory stimulation, and rigidity. When administering the ASRS to children between 6-18 year olds a third category is included which is the category of self-regulation. The research shows that the ASRS is effective and efficient to use with this population.

AERA (2014) mentions that in order to ensure fairness that standard 4.8 is followed. Standard 4.8 mentions that a test review process must include empirical analyses and that expert’s judge and review scoring methods. The ASRS, uses the direct observation, Likert scales, Cronbach’s Alpha, and T- scores are utilized to perform empirical analyses. The stability of the T-score was also evaluated and showed that the scores obtained in time one and time two had a standard deviation of one 90% of the time Standard 4.10 in the AERA (2014) also talks about the psychometric properties of items within a test and utilizing them to ensure fairness by documenting them.

Technology

In regards to technology, the Autism Spectrum Rating Scale (ASRS) is innovative and effective. The ASRS uses many components that require the use of technology. Within the ASRS one findings Cronbach’s Alpha and T-Scores, which provide statically evaluations. Technology allowed test developers to standardize the instruments found within the ASRS. The test developers were able to locate pertinent information such as norms associated with Autism Spectrum Disorder, it provided an understanding of atypical behaviors present in individuals with ASD, how to validate the parent rating scales, and through others research it provided test developers information as to which subsets needed to be included in the formal assessment (Goldstein and Naglieri 2010a).

To ensure fairness the usage of technology has been beneficial. The ASRS, allows users to access the scoring guide using an online software system. This not only helps make the format easier for individual users but also allows for quick and easy scoring methods to be performed. Knowing that the ASRS, can be scored quickly and effectively is beneficially for users who need to gather accurate results. The scoring guide provides users with fairness. Also, technology allows for appropriateness, as mentioned above technology has allowed for norm-based ratings to be established. Technology also provided individuals who administer the ASRS a computer to easily facilitate the assessment at a variety of location such as the beach, school, home, etc.. This is how technology has benefited and continues to benefit the ASRS (2010b).

Synthesis of Findings

Throughout this paper, I have identified major strengths and weaknesses in regards to the test items and materials. First, the ASRS has a language barrier. The test contents are only available in an English and Spanish version. This limited the influence this test can have on individuals because the format of the test cannot be given to individuals who do not speak English or Spanish. However, the fact that the ASRS accommodates individuals with non-verbal or limited verbal social skills is a major strength. Researching the validity of behavior rating scales ensured me that the ASRS has taken appropriate measures in regards to fairness. Another strength noted was the to score the ASRS a master degree or a bachelors degree in occupational therapy is needed; this provides accurate and reliable scores. In regards to scoring, the fact that individuals have the option to choose from three different result formats: progress-monitoring reports, interpretive report, and comparative reports is a strength. A weakness that was noted was that often time’s individuals with ASD have other co-morbidities and I was unable to locate any research studies in regards to individuals with ASD and cerebral palsy or ADHD. The test is unable to speak to the fairness when conducting the ASRS with an individual with multiple co-morbidities. Overall, the ASRS has excellent reliability, validity, and accuracy (Goldstein and Naglieri 2010b).

Conclusion and Recommendations

Throughout this paper I have discussed specific components of the Autism Spectrum Rating Scale, specifically addressing the test items, appropriateness, and materials. Overall, my evaluation of the ASRS in regards to the materials, test items, and appropriateness are great. Through conducting my only research I know that the ASRS is effective at identifying diagnostic criteria, interventions, and ongoing monitoring of individuals with Autism Spectrum Disorder.

The three recommendations that I believe the ASRS should implement would be to fist require test administers to undergo certain training in regards to facilitating the assessment. According, to AERA (2014) standard 6.1 mentions that administrators should follow specific guidelines in regards to administering the assessment. I feel as if there is not a well-defined guideline to follow for parents and caregivers that administer the test. Secondly, AERA (2014) according to standard 6.4 talks about the test environment and how it needs to be controlled to a certain degree. The computer format of the ASRS allows the testing environment to take place anywhere, however, the test needs to have specific guidelines for those that administer the test can follow. Lastly, it is my recommendation to make the test format available in more than English and Spanish, having limited availability in language means low generalizability.

 
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Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

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Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

Brown-Sequard Syndrome, named after its discoverer Charles-Édouard Brown-Séquard, is a rare neurological disorder that affects the spinal cord, resulting in distinct neurological deficits. This syndrome, often caused by traumatic spinal cord injuries or other pathological conditions, presents with a unique set of symptoms that can vary in severity depending on the location and extent of the spinal cord damage. Understanding the causes, signs, and treatment options for Brown-Sequard Syndrome is crucial for healthcare professionals to provide effective care and support to affected individuals. This paper aims to explore the causes, signs and symptoms, etiology, pathophysiology, DSM-5 diagnosis, treatment regimens and patient education, and conclude with insights into this complex neurological disorder. By delving into these aspects, we can gain a comprehensive understanding of Brown-Sequard Syndrome and its implications for patient care and management. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

Causes of Brown-Sequard Syndrome

Brown-Sequard Syndrome typically arises from traumatic injuries to the spinal cord, often resulting from accidents, falls, or acts of violence. These injuries can lead to compression, contusion, or laceration of the spinal cord, disrupting its normal function. Additionally, tumors, both primary and metastatic, can impinge upon the spinal cord, causing damage and subsequent neurological deficits characteristic of Brown-Sequard Syndrome.

Infections such as abscesses or inflammatory conditions like transverse myelitis can also affect the spinal cord, leading to this syndrome. Moreover, degenerative diseases such as multiple sclerosis or spinal cord ischemia due to vascular disorders can contribute to the development of Brown-Sequard Syndrome.

Penetrating injuries, such as gunshot wounds or stab wounds, pose a significant risk for causing Brown-Sequard Syndrome by directly damaging one side of the spinal cord. The severity of the syndrome often correlates with the extent of spinal cord injury, with complete transections resulting in more profound deficits compared to partial injuries.

Additionally, certain medical procedures, such as spinal surgeries or epidural steroid injections, carry a risk of complications that may include damage to the spinal cord, potentially leading to Brown-Sequard Syndrome.

Rarely, non-traumatic causes such as spinal cord infarction, spinal cord tumors, or vascular malformations can also result in Brown-Sequard Syndrome. In some cases, the exact cause of the syndrome may remain unknown, especially when no clear traumatic or pathological event precipitates its onset.

Overall, Brown-Sequard Syndrome can stem from various causes, including traumatic injuries, tumors, infections, degenerative diseases, and vascular disorders affecting the spinal cord. Understanding these diverse etiologies is crucial for accurate diagnosis and effective management of this neurological disorder. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

Signs and Symptoms

The signs and symptoms of Brown-Sequard Syndrome are characterized by a distinct pattern of neurological deficits resulting from damage to one side of the spinal cord. These deficits typically manifest differently depending on the level and extent of the spinal cord injury.

One of the hallmark features of Brown-Sequard Syndrome is weakness or paralysis on one side of the body, known as hemiparaplegia. This weakness affects the muscles controlled by the damaged portion of the spinal cord, leading to impaired motor function.

In addition to hemiparaplegia, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome may experience loss of sensation on the same side of the body as the paralysis. This sensory loss typically involves deficits in proprioception, tactile sensation, and vibration sense, reflecting the disruption of sensory pathways within the spinal cord.

Conversely, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome often retain sensation on the opposite side of the body, known as the contralateral side. This preservation of sensation on the unaffected side is a distinguishing feature of the syndrome and is attributed to the intact sensory pathways on the contralateral side of the spinal cord.

Furthermore, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome may exhibit altered reflexes on the affected side of the body, such as hyperreflexia or hyporeflexia, depending on the level of the spinal cord injury and the involvement of specific reflex arcs.

Other less common symptoms of Brown-Sequard Syndrome may include urinary or bowel dysfunction, sexual dysfunction, and disturbances in temperature regulation due to disruption of autonomic pathways within the spinal cord.

Overall, the signs and symptoms of Brown-Sequard Syndrome reflect the hemisection of the spinal cord, resulting in a characteristic pattern of motor, sensory, and autonomic deficits on the affected side of the body. Recognizing these symptoms is crucial for timely diagnosis and management of this rare neurological disorder. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Etiology of Brown-Sequard Syndrome

Brown-Sequard Syndrome arises from damage to one side of the spinal cord, leading to specific neurological deficits characteristic of the syndrome. The etiology of this condition can be attributed to various factors, including traumatic injuries, pathological conditions, and iatrogenic causes.

Traumatic injuries, such as those sustained in accidents, falls, or acts of violence, are among the most common causes of Brown-Sequard Syndrome. These injuries can result in compression, contusion, or laceration of the spinal cord, leading to disruption of sensory and motor pathways on one side of the body.

Pathological conditions, including tumors and infections, can also contribute to the development of Brown-Sequard Syndrome. Tumors, both primary and metastatic, can exert pressure on the spinal cord, causing damage and subsequent neurological deficits characteristic of the syndrome. Similarly, infections such as abscesses or inflammatory conditions like transverse myelitis can affect the spinal cord, leading to similar neurological deficits.

Degenerative diseases, such as multiple sclerosis or spinal cord ischemia due to vascular disorders, can also lead to Brown-Sequard Syndrome. These conditions can cause damage to the spinal cord, disrupting its normal function and resulting in characteristic symptoms of the syndrome.

Iatrogenic causes, including complications from medical procedures such as spinal surgeries or epidural steroid injections, can also result in Brown-Sequard Syndrome. These procedures carry a risk of complications that may include damage to the spinal cord, leading to neurological deficits characteristic of the syndrome.

Overall, the etiology of Brown-Sequard Syndrome is diverse and can include traumatic injuries, pathological conditions, degenerative diseases, and iatrogenic causes. Understanding these various etiologies is essential for accurate diagnosis and effective management of this neurological disorder. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Pathophysiology

Brown-Sequard Syndrome is characterized by a distinct pattern of neurological deficits resulting from damage to one side of the spinal cord, leading to disruption of sensory and motor pathways. The pathophysiology of this syndrome involves the hemisection of the spinal cord, which affects sensory and motor functions differently depending on the location and extent of the injury.

The spinal cord comprises white matter tracts that transmit sensory information from the periphery to the brain and motor commands from the brain to the muscles, as well as gray matter regions involved in processing and integrating this information. Damage to one side of the spinal cord disrupts these pathways, leading to specific deficits on the affected side of the body.

In Brown-Sequard Syndrome, the hemisection of the spinal cord results in ipsilateral paralysis or weakness on the same side of the body as the injury. This paralysis occurs due to the disruption of descending motor pathways that control voluntary movement.

Conversely, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome typically retain proprioception and tactile sensation on the same side of the body as the paralysis. This preservation of sensation is attributed to intact dorsal columns on the ipsilateral side of the spinal cord, which transmit sensory information related to proprioception, tactile sensation, and vibration sense.

However, individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome often experience loss of pain and temperature sensation on the contralateral side of the body due to disruption of spinothalamic tracts that transmit these sensory modalities. This contralateral sensory loss is a distinguishing feature of the syndrome and reflects the hemisection of the spinal cord.

Overall, the pathophysiology of Brown-Sequard Syndrome involves disruption of sensory and motor pathways within the spinal cord, resulting in characteristic deficits on the affected side of the body. Understanding this pathophysiology is crucial for accurate diagnosis and targeted management of this neurological disorder. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

DSM-5 Diagnosis

The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), does not provide specific diagnostic criteria for Brown-Sequard Syndrome, as it primarily focuses on psychiatric disorders. However, diagnosis of Brown-Sequard Syndrome is typically based on clinical presentation, imaging studies, and neurological assessments.

Clinical presentation plays a key role in diagnosing Brown-Sequard Syndrome. Healthcare professionals evaluate the patient’s history of trauma or other underlying conditions, as well as the presence of characteristic signs and symptoms such as hemiparaplegia, sensory deficits, and altered reflexes.

Imaging studies, particularly magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), are instrumental in confirming the diagnosis of Brown-Sequard Syndrome. MRI can reveal the location and extent of spinal cord injury, which helps differentiate Brown-Sequard Syndrome from other spinal cord disorders.

Neurological assessments are essential for evaluating the severity and extent of neurological deficits associated with Brown-Sequard Syndrome. These assessments may include testing motor function, sensation, reflexes, and autonomic function on both sides of the body.

Overall, while the DSM-5 does not provide specific diagnostic criteria for Brown-Sequard Syndrome, healthcare professionals rely on clinical presentation, imaging studies, and neurological assessments to diagnose this rare neurological disorder. The diagnosis is based on a comprehensive evaluation of the patient’s history, symptoms, and objective findings, which guide appropriate management and treatment interventions. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview

Treatment Regimens and Patient Education

Effective management of Brown-Sequard Syndrome involves a multidisciplinary approach aimed at addressing the underlying cause, managing symptoms, and maximizing functional recovery. Treatment regimens may include a combination of medical interventions, physical therapy, occupational therapy, medications, and surgical procedures tailored to the individual patient’s needs.

Medical interventions focus on addressing the underlying cause of Brown-Sequard Syndrome, such as surgical decompression for spinal cord compression due to tumors or traumatic injuries. In cases of infection, antibiotics or antiviral medications may be prescribed to control the infection and prevent further damage to the spinal cord.

Physical therapy plays a crucial role in rehabilitation and maximizing functional recovery for individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome. Physical therapists design customized exercise programs to improve strength, flexibility, balance, and coordination, targeting specific areas affected by the syndrome. These exercises help individuals regain motor function and enhance their overall mobility and independence.

Occupational therapy focuses on enhancing activities of daily living (ADLs) and adaptive skills to promote independence and improve quality of life. Occupational therapists provide training in techniques to compensate for sensory deficits and develop strategies to overcome challenges related to mobility, self-care, and participation in meaningful activities.

Medications may be prescribed to manage symptoms associated with Brown-Sequard Syndrome, such as pain, spasticity, and neuropathic pain. Common medications include analgesics, muscle relaxants, and anticonvulsants, which help alleviate discomfort and improve overall comfort and well-being.

In some cases, surgical interventions may be necessary to address specific complications or improve outcomes for individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome. Surgical procedures may include spinal fusion, decompression laminectomy, or tumor resection, depending on the underlying cause and extent of spinal cord injury.

Patient education is essential for individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome to understand their condition, treatment options, and strategies for managing symptoms and promoting recovery. Healthcare professionals provide information about the nature of the syndrome, expected outcomes, and potential complications. Patients and their caregivers learn techniques for preventing complications such as pressure ulcers, urinary tract infections, and deep vein thrombosis.

Furthermore, patients receive guidance on lifestyle modifications, including maintaining a healthy diet, staying physically active within their abilities, and managing stress. Patient education empowers individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome to actively participate in their care, make informed decisions, and optimize their overall well-being and quality of life. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

Conclusion

Brown-Sequard Syndrome is a rare neurological disorder characterized by specific deficits resulting from spinal cord injury. Understanding its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment is crucial for effective management and patient care. Traumatic injuries, tumors, infections, and degenerative diseases are common causes, leading to a distinct pattern of motor and sensory deficits. The pathophysiology involves disruption of sensory and motor pathways within the spinal cord, resulting in hemisection and ipsilateral paralysis. While the DSM-5 does not provide specific diagnostic criteria, clinical presentation, imaging studies, and neurological assessments aid in diagnosis. Treatment regimens include medical interventions, physical and occupational therapy, medications, and surgical procedures tailored to individual needs. Patient education plays a vital role in empowering individuals to actively participate in their care and optimize their quality of life. By addressing these aspects comprehensively, healthcare professionals can improve outcomes and enhance the overall well-being of individuals with Brown-Sequard Syndrome. (Nursing Paper Example on Brown-Sequard Syndrome: An Overview)

References

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538135/

 
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Preface

This past year was tough, making the switch to LeVay et al., but I’m glad I did it. Discovering Human Sexuality is unique in both approach and content. The authors have a point of view, but still provide balanced coverage of contro- versial issues. The boxes are wonderful. One of the things I like about it is the inclusion of historical and cross-cultural detail in the boxes. It’s a very readable and beautiful book. The illustrations and diagrams are excellent—the best of any text I have ever used. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Josephine Caldwell-Ryan Southern Methodist University

Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition, is the continuation of a textbook that originated in 2003 with the publication of Human Sexuality by Simon LeVay and Sharon Valente. Since then, the book has gone through several changes of author- ship, format, and title. One consistency, however, has been the identity of the lead author. Another has been the book’s high academic and pedagogical standards, which have earned it a prominent place in the market and broad praise from review- ers and users, including the kind words cited above.

The Second Edition of Human Sexuality appeared in 2006 with the same two authors. For the 2009 edition, however, Janice Baldwin replaced Sharon Valente. Also, we decided to produce two distinct versions of the book. One of them— Human Sexuality, Third Edition—continued the approach pioneered in the earlier editions. The other, which we titled Discovering Human Sexuality, was a somewhat shorter and more accessible version that demanded less prior knowledge on the part of the students, especially in the area of biol- ogy. John Baldwin joined LeVay and Janice Baldwin as third author of this version. In 2012 we continued with the same two versions (Human Sexuality, Fourth Edition, and Discover- ing Human Sexuality, Second Edition).

For the current edition we have decided to merge the two versions into one, which we have titled Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition. It was a difficult decision to make because both versions had been successful in the market- place and each served a somewhat different need. However, the workload involved in producing two different textbooks at the same time was excessive. In addition, we realized that we could incorporate the best features of Human Sexuality into Discovering Human Sexuality by judicious changes to the text and by the addition of two appendices containing more advanced “optional” material.

Features of Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition Important features of Discovering Human Sexuality distinguish our book from competing texts: (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

evidence-based approach We believe that human sexuality is an academic subject like any other, meaning that it should be grounded in reason. Throughout the book, we have sought to present statements that are supported by data, ideas that are tested or testable, and recommendations that are based on research. There are many unanswered questions in sexuality, of course—questions about how ab- normal modes of sexual expression (paraphilic disorders) develop, for example, and how best to treat them. In deal- ing with these controversies, an evidence-based approach demands a nondogmatic style and a willingness to admit that not everything is known. Some students may feel chal- lenged to enter the field of sex research themselves in order to help fill those gaps in our understanding.

Some human sexuality texts contain a great deal of advice to students, especially in the area of relationships. Much of this advice has no objective basis and seems designed more to transmit the authors’ values than to foster an authentic learning experience. In Discovering Human Sexuality, we keep the total quantity of advice down and try to ensure that the advice we do give has been “field-tested.” Even in such an elementary matter as how to put on a condom, many texts include useless steps, such as squeezing the tip of the con- dom to leave space for the ejaculate. Doing so serves no pur- pose—the man who could burst a condom with his ejaculate has yet to be born—and neither the World Health Organiza- tion nor the leading U.S. experts believe that it should be part of the instructions for condom use. It has become an element in the folklore that gets perpetuated by textbooks— though not by this one. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Literature citations are, of course, an important element of an evidence-based book. We have been surprised by how cavalierly some competing books deal with this issue—quite commonly, citations in the text are not matched by any cor- responding entries in the bibliography. In Discovering Human Sexuality we have made every effort to ensure that references are fully documented. Another common practice that we consider unacademic is referring to original research stud- ies by citing magazine or newspaper articles that mention

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xxII PREFACE

them, rather than the journal articles in which the research was presented. Our policy has been to cite original sources wherever possible, and to use magazine and newspaper references for the kinds of topics they excel at, such as news stories, cultural trends, and the like. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help) emphasis on diversity Today’s college students come from a wide range of backgrounds, and in their adult lives they will have to deal with people very different from themselves. Our text presents this diversity in a detailed and nonjudgmental fashion. For example, with regard to sexual orientation, we go far beyond “gay,” “bisexual,” and “straight”: We talk about the ever-changing history of the butch-femme dichotomy in lesbian culture, women whose self-identity is too fluid for one-word labels, gay men who are “bears” or “bear cubs” or into the leather scene, what it’s like to be gay and Asian-American or Native American, how the gay experience differs for different generations of Americans and for gay people around the world, and so on. Similarly, we take pains to discuss racial, ethnic, and religious diversity, as they affect sexuality, and of course diversity in the actual modes of sexual behavior—including some of the more unusual forms of sexual expression such as “adult babies” and men whose partners are (liter- ally) dolls. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help) presentation style Simon LeVay, Janice Baldwin, and John Baldwin are all experienced authors of college text- books. In creating Discovering Human Sexuality, we have pooled our writing skills to ensure that the text is fully accessible, engaging, and relevant to students of diverse back- grounds. The result of these combined efforts is, we believe, the most readable and student-friendly human sexuality text on the market.

art program Another way that we have striven to maintain both comprehensibility and interest is through the illustrations. One might think that it would be a simple matter to illustrate a book on human sexuality, but in reality it is a significant challenge. Illustrating some of the concepts dis- cussed in this book, especially in its more biologically oriented sections, requires a great deal of thought and design skill. Our publisher, Sinauer Associates, is an industry leader in the use of art as a pedagogical medium. Thanks to our publisher’s efforts, many complex topics, such as the regulation of the menstrual cycle, have been given a visual representation that gracefully parallels and clarifies the accompanying text. Nearly every two-page spread in the book offers one or more illustrations—photographs, drawings, diagrams, graphs, or charts—relevant to the text on that spread. Besides their informative value, illustrations offer important visual relief. Some of our competitors’ texts contain sequences of up to ten pages without a single illustration—a definite challenge to the average student’s attention span. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help) boxes The 76 boxes are an important feature of the book. The boxes are organized into eight themes: Controversies; Biology of Sex; Cultural Diversity; Research Highlights; Sexual Health; Sex in History; Personal Points of View; and Society, Values, and the Law. Within each theme, the sub- jects range from the serious to the lighthearted, but they all attempt to broaden the reader’s horizons with a more in- depth look at specific questions than is possible within the main text: What exactly does “losing one’s virginity” mean to today’s teenagers, behaviorally and emotionally? Is there more than one kind of female ejaculation? What’s it like to be a rubber fetishist? Why do some Amazonian peoples be- lieve that a child can have several fathers? In tackling these and many other questions, the boxes provide breaks from the steady flow of the text and allow students to consider specific issues in a more relaxed and informal way.

Other aids to learning and revision include key terms (indi- cated by boldfaced type and defined in a running glossary), FAQs (frequently asked questions), discussion questions, chapter summaries, Web resources, and recommended reading materials.

Discovering Human Sexuality’s student companion web- site (sites.sinauer.com/discoveringhumansexuality3e) is an invaluable learning aid. This site parallels the text with a thorough set of study questions, animations, activities, Web topics, quizzes, and other resources. Website activities are linked to the text and are referenced in maroon type in the printed text. In addition, a complete set of instructor supple- ments is available to qualified adopters of the textbook. See the section on Media and Supplements for details on the full range of material that accompanies Discovering Human Sexuality.

The Third Edition The following are examples of the many changes that we have made for the Third Edition: zz Chapter 1, “Sexuality: Pathways to Understanding,”

has been thoroughly rewritten. It now pays less attention to the history of sex research and more to the diversity of methods that are used to study sexu- ality. We discuss a specific example of the use of each methodological approach. zz We have added discussions of many topics that

were not covered, or only briefly covered, in earlier editions. These topics include group sex (Chapter 6); data-mining studies based on OkCupid and

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other websites (Chapters 5, 12, and elsewhere); the influence of physical attractiveness on men’s and women’s satisfaction with their long-term relation- ships (Chapter 5); the new definitions of paraphilias and paraphilic disorders in DSM-5 and the contro- versy surrounding them (Chapter 13); the current debate on how to respond vigorously and yet fairly to allegations of campus rape (Chapter 16); and the personalities and attitudes of men who use prosti- tutes (Chapter 17). We have also deleted numerous passages that seemed less interesting or instructive than they were a few years ago. zz We have added 19 new boxes on a wide range of

topics, including “Foot Orgasms,” “Pain-free Child- birth,” “Feticide,” “Why Gay Genes?” “STIs and the Law,” and “What’s It Like to Be a Porn Star?” zz We have of course taken the opportunity to update

the book with the latest research, surveys, statistics, laws, medical advances, contraceptive techniques, and cultural happenings. zz The two appendices cover material that was not

included in Discovering Human Sexuality, Second Edition. We present this material in the form of appendices so that instructors may include it or not as suits the purposes of their classes and the interests and backgrounds of their students. Appendix A is an abbreviated and updated version of the chapter “Sex and Evolution” from Human Sexuality, Fourth Edi- tion. It tackles important questions that are addressed in few other undergraduate human sexuality text- books, such as: What is the adaptive value of sexual reproduction? How does sexual selection work? What are the benefits and costs of male and female promiscuity? and What is the basis of incest avoid- ance? Appendix B lays out more detail on the role of the nervous system in sexual behavior and physiol- ogy than is presented in the main text, including, for example, the anatomy and functional role of the autonomic nervous system in genital responses. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Acknowledgments Producing a modern college textbook such as this one requires the combined efforts of a much larger team of professionals than the three of us who are privileged to have our names on the front cover. The staff members of Sinauer Associates have produced, with great efficiency and good humor, a textbook of outstanding visual quality and educational value. Those with whom we have had the most enduring contacts are editor Sydney Carroll, produc- tion editor Martha Lorantos, and photo researcher David

McIntyre, but many others labored behind the scenes to ensure the book’s high quality and timely production. We are especially grateful for the production oversight of Janice Holabird and Christopher Small, and for the creative cover design by Joan Gemme. We also thank Lou Doucette for her skillful copyediting; Jason Dirks, Carolyn Mailler, Mara Sil- ver, Suzanne Carter, Ann Chiara, Thomas Friedmann, and Nate Nolet for their work on the media and supplements package; Marie Scavotto, Nancy Asai, and Susan McGlew for their effective work promoting the book; Johanna Walko- wicz for obtaining outside reviews; and Penny Grant for sending us our checks on time!

Reviewers We acknowledge with gratitude the extensive and construc- tive comments made by the people who reviewed chapters of Discovering Human Sexuality for the new edition. These reviewers are listed below. Helpful comments have also come from the Baldwins’ students at the University of Cali- fornia, Santa Barbara.

Ernest Abel, Wayne State University Amy Beeman, San Diego Mesa College Kimberly Blackwell, Hampton University Elizabeth Calamidas, Richard Stockton College Michael Clayton, Youngstown State University Karen Gee, Mission College Samantha Gibeau, Lane Community College John Hallock, Pima Community College Julie Harris, East Carolina University Lynda Hoggan, Mt. San Antonio College Nathan Iverson, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Jason Lavender, North Dakota State University Janet Lever, California State University, Los Angeles Vicki Lucey, Modesto Junior College Stephanie Marin, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Wanda C. McCarthy, University of Cincinnati Clermont College Heather Meggers, Birmingham Southern College Tami James Moore, University of Nebraska at Kearney Peggy Oberstaller, Lane Community College Carolyn Peterson, University of Cincinnati Jason Rothman, California State Polytechnic University, Pomona Justine Shuey, Montgomery County Community College Peter Sparks, Oregon State University–Cascades Paul Vasey, University of Lethbridge James Vaughn, University of Science and Arts of Oklahoma

PREFACE xxIII

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Media and Supplements to accompany Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition

For the Student Companion Website sites.sinauer.com/discoveringhumansexuality3e

The Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition Companion Website includes a robust set of study and review aids—all available at no cost to the student. This online companion to the textbook takes the place of a printed study guide and includes the following resources: zz Chapter Outlines: Complete outlines of each chapter

provide an overview of the chapter and include links to the relevant Study Questions for each section. zz Chapter Summaries: A thorough review of each chap-

ter’s content. zz Learning Objectives: The objectives help focus the

student on the important concepts and topics in each chapter; each is referenced to specific textbook head- ings and pages. zz Activities: For selected chapters, animations, dynamic

illustrations, and labeling exercises help the student learn and understand complex concepts and ana- tomical (and other) terms. zz Study Questions: An extensive set of interactive self-

study questions covers the full range of content in every chapter. zz Flashcards: Students can quiz themselves on all the

important terms from each chapter, or they can browse the list of terms as a review. zz Web Links: A set of online sites and resources relevant

to each chapter. zz Glossary: A complete online version of the book’s

glossary. zz Online Quizzes: Two sets of questions are available

for each chapter, for instructors to assign or make available to students as review exercises (instructor registration required): zz Multiple-Choice Quizzes test student comprehension of the material covered in each chapter. zz Essay Questions challenge students to synthesize and apply what they have learned. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

For the Instructor (available to qualified adopters)

Instructor’s Resource Library The Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition Instructor’s Resource Library (IRL) contains a wealth of resources for use in course planning, lecture development, and assessment. Contents include: zz Textbook Figures & Tables: All of the textbook’s figures

(both line art and photographs) are provided as JPEG files at two sizes: high-resolution (excellent for use in PowerPoint) and low-resolution (ideal for web pages and other uses). All the artwork has been reformatted and optimized for exceptional image quality when projected in class. zz PowerPoint Resources: Two ready-to-use presentations

are provided for each chapter: zz A lecture presentation that includes text covering the entire chapter, with selected figures. zz A figures presentation that includes all the figures and tables from the chapter. zz Instructor’s Manual: The Instructor’s Manual provides instructors with a variety of resources to aid in planning their course and developing their lectures. For each chapter, the manual includes a chapter overview, a chapter outline, the complete chap- ter summary, class discussion questions, teaching resources, and suggested readings. zz Media Guide: The Media Guide includes extensive lists of suggested video segments (and full-length titles) that are ideal for use as lecture starters or other in-class activities. Video suggestions (with links and sources) are provided for topics across all chap- ters, and suggested discussion questions are also included. zz Test Bank: The Test Bank consists of a broad range of questions covering all the key facts and concepts in each chapter. Each chapter includes multiple-choice, fill-in-the-blank, and, new for the Third Edition, short answer questions. Also included are all of the Companion Website quizzes (multiple-choice and essay), the textbook end-of-chapter questions, and

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MEDIA AND SUPPLEMENTS xxV

the Media Guide discussion questions. All questions are keyed to Bloom’s Taxonomy and referenced to specific textbook sections. zz Computerized Test Bank: The entire test bank is pro-

vided in Blackboard’s Diploma software. Diploma makes it easy to assemble quizzes and exams from any combination of publisher-provided questions and instructor-created questions. In addition, quiz- zes and exams can be exported to many different course management systems, such as Blackboard and Moodle.

Online Quizzing The Discovering Human Sexuality Companion Website fea- tures pre-built chapter quizzes (see above) that report into an online gradebook. Adopting instructors have access to these quizzes and can choose to either assign them or let students use them for review. (Instructors must register in order for their students to be able to take the quizzes.) Instructors also have the ability to add their own questions and create their own quizzes.

Value Options eBOOK Discovering Human Sexuality, Third Edition is available as an eBook, in several different formats. The eBook can be pur- chased as either a 180-day rental or a permanent (non-expir- ing) subscription. All major mobile devices are supported. For details on the eBook platforms offered, please visit www. sinauer.com/ebooks.

Looseleaf Textbook (ISBN 978-1-60535-379-1) Discovering Human Sexuality is available in a three-hole punched, looseleaf format. Students can take just the sec- tions they need to class and can easily integrate instructor material with the text.

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Discovering Human Sexuality

third edition

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1Chapter

Sexuality is a fundamental aspect of human nature.

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Sexuality: Pathways to Understanding

Sexuality is a central and all-pervasive theme of human existence. At its best, sexuality charges our lives with energy, excitement, and love. It offers a deep sense of connectedness, capable of spanning and healing social divisions. It creates family, the primary unit of society and the cradle of future generations.

At its worst, sexuality brings prejudice, anguish, violence, and disease. To begin our exploration of this powerful and mysterious force, we first ask what the terms “sex” and “sexuality” mean and why sexuality is a topic worth studying. We go on to review some of the ways in which human sexuality has changed between the origin of our species and the present day. Our purpose is to make clear that, even though there may be some eternal truths about sexuality, it is not static: It changes slowly as a result of evolutionary forces, and much faster under the influence of culture. We then go on to describe the variety of methods by which sexuality can be studied, methods that will be applied repeatedly throughout the remainder of the book.

To do it justice, we must approach human sexuality with open minds, with respect for diversity, and with all the modes of inquiry that have been used to illuminate human nature. Approached in this way, the topic is not just another step in your college career: It is a personal voyage of discovery that will help you to enjoy the best that sexuality has to offer, and to avoid the worst. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

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4 chapter 1

Sexuality Is a Broader Concept than Sex The term sex has two meanings. First, it means the distinction between female and male—a distinction that, as we’ll see in later chapters, is not as clear-cut as you might imagine. Second, it means engaging in sexual behaviors. These behaviors may be very obviously sexual because they are marked by genital phenomena such as vagi- nal lubrication, penile or clitoral erection, orgasm, and so on. But they also include behaviors that do not directly involve the genitals, such as courtship, as well as behaviors such as kissing that may or may not be sexual depending on context.

The term sexuality includes sex but also goes beyond it to encompass the entire realm of human experience that is more or less closely connected with sex. It means, for example, our gendered traits—the psychological traits that differ, to a greater or lesser extent, between women and men. It means our sexual and romantic attrac- tions and relationships—who we find attractive or fall in love with, and how we establish, maintain, or dissolve sexual partnerships. It means becoming a parent (or preventing that from happening). It also includes the two-way relationship between our personal sexual identities and behaviors and social structures such as the law, religion, medicine, and politics. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Studying Sexuality Has Practical Benefits There are many possible reasons why you have chosen to take a course in human sexuality. Maybe you’re simply curious about a topic that is often treated with embar- rassment, evasion, or flippancy. Maybe you are looking for ways to improve your own sex life, or you think you have sexual problems that need to be solved. Maybe you are planning a career that requires an understanding of human sexuality.

Regardless of your specific motives, many practical benefits are to be gained from taking this course and reading this textbook. Here are some examples:

zz Improving your understanding of the structure and function of your geni- tals and those of your partners will help you give and receive more plea- sure from sex. zz Learning more about how people communicate on sexual topics will

increase your chances of forming and maintaining satisfying relationships and avoiding abusive ones. zz Learning about sexual diversity will encourage you to be more understanding of unusual sexual desires and behaviors—whether in others or in yourself. zz Educating yourself about contraception and sexually transmitted infections will lessen the chance that your sexual behavior may end up harming you or your partners. zz Becoming knowledgeable about sex will be an asset to you in your future career—most especially if you enter the medical or helping fields, but also in any career that brings you into contact with other people. zz Educating yourself about sex will enable you to educate others—including your friends and your own children, if you plan to have them. zz By learning to think critically about research, you will become a more discriminating consumer of media reports and advertising relating to sexuality.

Sexuality Has Changed over Time Most—but not all—women and men experience sexual desire and engage in sexual relationships at some point in their lives. This has likely been true across the course of  sex A person’s identity as female or male, or sexual behavior. sexuality The feelings, behaviors, and identities associated with sex. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 5

human history and prehistory, and it is true around the world today. But the ways in which these desires and relationships express themselves have been extraordi- narily varied. Here we sketch some of the changes that have occurred over time.

Sexuality has been influenced by evolution Humans evolved from the common ancestors of humans and nonhuman pri- mates, who lived about 7 million years ago. You might think that we could get some idea of early human sexuality by studying the sexual behavior of our clos- est relatives, the great apes (chimpanzees, bonobos, gorillas, and orangutans), on the assumption that these animals have changed less over time than we have.

It turns out, however, that there is a great deal of sexual diversity even among these closely related species. Among chimpanzees, for example, most sexual behavior is between males and females and has the potential to lead to preg- nancy. Among bonobos, which look very similar to chimpanzees, sexual contact between individuals of the same sex is common. The function of such behavior is clearly not reproductive; rather, it serves the purposes of conflict resolution and alliance formation (Parish & de Waal, 2000). Among orangutans coercive sex—analogous to rape in humans—is common (Knott et al., 2010), but that’s not true for bonobos. Some of these species differences are described in Appendix A. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

One general characteristic of sexual behavior among our primate relatives is that more of it takes place than is strictly necessary for reproductive purposes—some- times a great deal more. Another is that individuals compete for sex partners: Males often compete for access to the most fertile females, while females often compete for the attention of high-ranking males. You don’t have to be a sex researcher to know that these kinds of competition are prevalent in our own species today. It’s likely that competition for partners has characterized sexuality throughout human history and prehistory, and that this competition has driven the evolution of sex differences in appearance and behavior.

Early in the evolution of our species, humans probably lacked understanding of the connection between coitus (penile-vaginal intercourse) and reproduction. Of course, they acted as if they understood, just as our primate relatives do, but their sexual behavior was actually driven by instincts that required little conscious aware- ness. Even today, there are human cultures where people are unaware of biological facts that seem obvious to us, such as the fact that a child has just one father, or that pregnancy and childbirth result from a single act of coitus (Box 1.1).

Over the course of human history the trend toward an increasingly conscious understanding of how sex “works” has influenced human sexuality in directions that seem counterintuitive in evolutionary terms. For example, the knowledge that the deposition of semen (the male ejaculate) in the vagina is what causes pregnancy led to the introduction of contraceptive practices. These included withdrawal of the penis prior to ejaculation—a practice known already in Old Testament times—and the use of various kinds of barriers placed in the vagina. Similarly, methods intended to interrupt an established pregnancy—by use of certain herbs or poisons, or by black magic—were widely used in the Middle Ages, with varying success. As methods for contraception and abortion have improved over the centuries, so has it become increasingly possible to enjoy the pleasures of sex without its natural consequences. This has undoubtedly increased people’s—especially women’s—willingness to engage in sex both within and outside of established relationships. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Society has changed sexuality Human sexuality has been greatly influenced by the development of social controls. The transition from a hunter-gatherer lifestyle to one of settled agriculture took place coitus Penile-vaginal intercourse.

Male primates, such as these golden snub-nosed monkeys, often fight over access to females.

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6 chapter 1

in the Middle East roughly 10,000 years ago. This transition led eventually to the formation of city-states, which required governments and the regulation of social behavior. Nudity was restricted, in part with the aim of reducing sexual arousal, pre- venting the sight of sexual arousal in others, and eliminating sexual conflicts. (Some present-day hunter-gatherer cultures still permit nudity.) Marriage was formalized, and nonmarital sex was discouraged to a greater or lesser degree.

Meet My Dads no matter how many men a woman has sex with, any child she bears has only a single biological father—the man whose sperm fertilized the woman’s ovum. in most cultures around the world, people accept this reality of single paternity. yet anthropologists have discovered an exception among many of the indigenous tribal societies of lowland South america (amazonia and nearby areas). here people believe that a man’s semen remains in the woman’s body indefinitely after sexual intercourse, so if several different men have sex with her before she becomes pregnant, then all of them contribute to the making of her child (Becker- man & Valentine, 2002).

this belief is called partible paternity (“divisible fatherhood”). By studying language relationships among the societies where partible paternity is found, anthropologist robert walker of the university of Missouri and his colleagues have traced it back to the distant past, probably to the time when the lowlands were first settled and the settlers spoke a common language (walker et al., 2010). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help) what benefit does the concept of partible paternity confer? anthropologists such as William Crocker of the Smithsonian institution have found that the societies that believe in partible paternity engage in distinctive sexual practices (crocker & crocker, 2003). they may participate in rituals in which women engage in sex sequentially with multiple men. and unlike in other cultures, where men typically guard their wives from sexual con- tact with other males, men in these amazonian tribes may freely offer their wives to male relatives as well as to powerful men who are actual or potential allies. partible paternity, and the practices associated with them, benefit women’s efforts to raise children. that’s because the multiple “fathers” of a given child may give gifts in exchange for sex, may support or protect the child, or may at least refrain from killing the child. (the killing of infants and children by men has traditionally been a significant cause of mortality in Amazonian cultures.) what about the men? on the face of it, the notion of partible paternity seems to disadvantage them, because they may end up supporting children who are not biologically theirs. on the other hand, they are “hedging their reproductive bets” by spreading their semen widely. this may be of particular value to high-status men, who gain disproportionate access to other men’s wives, thanks to partible paternity. in addition, partible paternity gives men some assurance that their biological children will have male support in the event of their own premature death, something that’s all too common in Amazonia. this still leaves unanswered the question of why partible paternity is common in lowland South America but rare else- where. the answer may be related to the importance of kin- ship and alliances in those societies, combined with a general absence of material wealth. in such circumstances paternity may be used as a unit of wealth that can be traded, as it were, in social networks. partible paternity the belief that two or more men may be fathers of the same child.

This Araweté woman of Brazil may believe that two or more men fathered her son.

Box 1.1 Cultural Diversity

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 7

Organized religion played a role in these changes (Endsjo, 2011). Although religious teachings have varied greatly, they have often fostered procreative heterosexual sex within marriage while labeling other forms of sexual expression as sinful. This was particularly true for the Christian religion: For most of the two millennia since its foundation, Christian teachings forbade all nonmarital sex, homo- sexual sex, masturbation, contraception, abortion, and polygamy. Even marital sex was restricted to coitus in certain positions, and it was forbidden on certain days of the week and during Lent (Ranke-Heinemann, 1990). Priests were commonly barred from marriage or any kind of sexual activity. This changed to some extent after the Reformation, when western Christianity splintered into numerous denominations, some of which have become much more liberal in the area of sexual ethics compared with the Catholic Church. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

The development of large-scale societies led to the emergence of class structures, with the rich and powerful at the top and the impoverished masses at the bottom. What class you belonged to greatly influenced your sex life. Take India: The Kama Sutra, compiled around the 2nd century, describes innumerable ways for men to obtain sexual pleasure and to give sexual pleasure to women (Vatsyayana, 1991) (Figure 1.1). It also describes sex between women and between men. But the Kama Sutra was written for and about the idle rich. (What to do between breakfast and lunch? Teach your parrot to talk.) If the sex lives of low- caste Indians were anything like they are today, they involved hasty, fully-clothed couplings with the minimum of pleasure or romance (Nath & Nayar, 1997).

Another way that class influenced sexuality had to do with polygamy. The major- ity of human cultures have permitted men to have more than one wife, but it was largely rich and powerful men who did so, because they had sufficient means—King Solomon is said to have had a thousand wives. Polygamy reduced the numbers of available women and thus made it harder for poor men to afford even one wife. What’s more, polygamy is connected with the idea that women are men’s property— if a rich man has many cattle, why shouldn’t he have many wives? By banning polyg- amy, the Christian religion promoted a somewhat more gender-equitable society.*

Across history, large numbers of men have been deprived of a sex life altogether by being castrated—that is, by having their testicles removed, and sometimes the penis also. Such men were called eunuchs. Castration was carried out as a punish- ment among criminals or prisoners of war, or (if done before puberty) to produce asexual male slaves who could serve certain roles such as court attendants, harem guards, dancers, or singers. Some eunuchs achieved powerful positions in imperial courts across Asia. In India, some men were (and still are) voluntarily castrated as an initiation into the transgender religious caste known as hijras, who are described further in Chapter 4 (Nanda, 1998). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Figure 1.1 The Kama Sutra describes a wide variety of sexual positions.

* In early Islam, polygamy helped provide for the many women whose husbands died in warfare.

heterosexuality Sexual attraction to, or behavior with, persons of the opposite sex.

homosexuality Sexual attraction to, or behavior with, persons of the same sex.

polygamy Having more than one spouse at the same time, as a social institution.

castration Removal of the testicles or testicles and penis.

eunuch A man who has been castrated.

transgender (or trans) Identifying with the other sex or rejecting gender norms.

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8 chapter 1

In general, castration has served the interests of noncastrated men, especially powerful men, and it therefore represents another way in which class and sexuality interact. Today, castration by surgery or “chemical castration” by drugs is performed voluntarily on some men with prostate cancer in an effort to prolong their lives—per- haps a quarter of a million American men are in this situation (Wassersug et al., 2014). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Another important effect of cultural change has involved sexually transmitted infections. When people lived in small groups and stayed in a restricted area, they tended to reach a biological accommodation with the infectious agents (bacteria and viruses) present in that population, such that their effects were not especially severe. Increases in population density and long-distance travel changed this picture: The organism that causes syphilis, for example, was present in the native populations of the Americas long before the arrival of Columbus and other explorers, but when these men returned to Europe, bringing the organism with them, it unleashed a dev- astating epidemic (Rothschild et al., 2000). Potentially fatal diseases such as syphilis and (more recently) AIDS made sex itself seem frightening and sinful.

Marriage has been transformed Yet another important change has been the radical decline in birth rates that has taken place in most countries, starting in the late 18th century. Over this period the number of children born to the average American woman has fallen from 7 or 8 to about 2 (Figure 1.2). Today, there are plenty of women or couples who choose to have no children at all—something that used to be quite unusual, except for women in religious orders. This decline has not been accompanied by any decline in people’s interest in sex. Thus the idea has gained currency that sex has a legitimate emotional or recreational function, beyond the production of children.

The institution of marriage has changed over time (Abbott, 2011). In many tradi- tional societies marriage signified the transfer of ownership of a woman from her father to her husband; marriages were negotiated and often involved large bridal payments. People fell in love, but they were lucky if they married the people they fell in love with. In Europe and America, even as late as the 19th century, a suitor was expected to ask the girl’s father for permission to propose to her, and if permis- sion was refused—because the young man had insufficient means, for example—the young couple’s only recourse might be to run away (elope) and marry at some distant location. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

A woman was expected to be a virgin when she married, but a man could be forgiven or even admired for “sowing his wild oats.” (This was an example of the double standard, by which males and females were, and still may be, held to differ- ent moral codes.) The husband’s and wife’s roles in marriage were also quite distinct:

double standard The idea that acceptable behavior is different for men than for women.

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Figure 1.2 Declining birthrates This graph shows the average number of children born to American women between 1800 and 2010. The data for white and African-American women are plotted separately.

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 9

The husband was the breadwinner, the wife the homemaker and child rearer, perhaps with the help of servants.

Before the 20th century, marriage was for life: Divorce was quite uncommon and was only permitted in cases of proven adultery. Divorce laws were greatly liberalized over the course of the 20th century, and now nearly half of all U.S. marriages end in divorce rather than death (Wilcox & Marquardt, 2011). What’s more, it’s now widely accepted that women are sexually active before mar- riage, and that couples may live together (cohabit) before mar- riage or without marrying at all. And the birth of children outside of marriage, once a shocking secret, is now more or less routine: Over 40% of all U.S. births are now to unmarried women, who may be single or cohabiting with a man or with a woman (Martin et al., 2013).

Up until the mid-20th century the vast majority of Americans considered inter- racial marriage to be sinful, and such marriages were illegal in many states. Atti- tudes changed gradually after World War II, and in 1967 the U.S. Supreme Court established a constitutional right to marry across racial lines (Figure 1.3). Currently we are witnessing a similar trend with regard to same-sex marriage, but gay couples who marry today are joining an institution that has lost a great deal of its former significance. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Sex has become a topic of social discourse The 20th century saw a dramatic increase in people’s willingness to talk about sex. At the beginning of the century Victorian prudery still ruled: Most people could talk about sex only obliquely, if at all. Then came a series of outspoken researchers and activists whose work turned sex into a hot topic of conversation. Here are a few of them:

zz Havelock Ellis (1859–1939) was an English physician who described unusual kinds of sexual expression (which had previously been called “perversions”) in a sympathetic rather than a condemnatory way. zz Sigmund Freud (1856–1939) was an Austrian neurologist and founder

of psychoanalysis. He proposed that our lives are governed by a roiling unconscious world of sexual drives and conflicts (Box 1.2). zz Margaret Sanger (1879–1966), an American social activist, campaigned

tirelessly and effectively for women’s right to learn about and practice contraception. zz Alfred Kinsey (1894–1956) was an Indiana University biologist whose pio-

neering sex surveys (the “Kinsey Reports”) caused a sensation when they were published in 1948 and 1953 (Figure 1.4). zz Margaret Mead (1901–1978) was an American cultural anthropologist who

described the sexually uninhibited lifestyles of some Pacific Islanders. zz William Masters (1915–2001) and Virginia Johnson (1925–2013), of Wash-

ington University in St. Louis, pioneered the physiological study of sexual responses in healthy people and in those with sexual disorders.

cohabitation A live-in sexual relationship between individuals who are not married to each other.

Figure 1.3 Supreme Court justice Clarence Thomas and his wife Virginia are one of the many couples who have benefited from the court’s 1967 ruling that there is a constitutional right to marry across racial lines. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

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10 chapter 1

School sex education, which is now mandated in 22 U.S. states (National Conference of State Legislatures, 2014) and throughout Canada, has also promoted discussion and awareness of sexual issues. Even today, though, many Americans find it difficult or inappropriate to talk about sex, and in some more-conservative cultures it may be completely off-limits.

Social movements have affected sexuality Political and social movements have impacted sexuality in America and elsewhere. In the 1970s and 1980s the women’s movement asserted women’s right to control their own bodies (through contraception and abortion, for example), to be free of sexual coercion, and to seek pleasure in sexual relationships. The idea gained ground that men shared responsibility for ensuring that their female partners experienced pleasure, including orgasm, during sex.

The gay liberation movement led to the increasing acceptance of homosexuality, which led in turn to the enactment of anti-discrimination laws, starting in the 1980s, and the nationwide legalization of gay sex by a 2003 ruling of the U.S. Supreme Court. Advocates have campaigned for recognition and social acceptance of many other facets of sexuality: bisexuality, asexuality, transgender identity, intersexual- ity, plural marriage (polygamy), polyamory, sadomasochism, fetishes, pedophilia, pornography, and prostitution. (If some of these terms are unfamiliar to you, don’t worry: We will be covering them all in later chapters.) Although these efforts have met with widely varying success—and rightly so, you may think—what they have done is change the conversation: Sexual expression, it’s now increasingly agreed, should be legally restricted only when it makes rational sense to do so, not simply when it runs afoul of tradition, prejudice, or good taste.

Of course, sexuality doesn’t just change over time; it also varies widely from place to place around the present-day world, and among individuals within the same population. We will focus primarily on North America, the region where this text is used, but from time to time we will make trips overseas to look at examples of global diversity in sexual behavior and ideas about sexuality.

Figure 1.4 Let’s talk about sex. Sex researcher Alfred Kinsey (far right) lectures at the University of California in 1949.

What was the “sexual revolution” of the 1960s?

It was a youth-led movement for greater sexual freedom and indi- viduality, driven by rebellion against the more orthodox World War II generation and fueled by feminism, the contraceptive pill, rock and roll, and drugs. An enduring conse- quence was the greater acceptance of sex outside of marriage. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

FAQ

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Freud and Hirschfeld: Contrasting Theories on Sexual Orientation about a century ago, two european doctors proposed radically different theories to account for why some people are sexually attracted predominantly to members of the other sex while oth- ers are attracted to members of the same sex or to both sexes— a characteristic we now call sexual orientation. in Vienna, Sig- mund Freud (Figure A) developed a theory that was based on the concept of an unconscious mind, whose operations could supposedly be probed by psychoanalytic techniques such as free association, the interpretation of dreams, and slips of the tongue. the unconscious mind, though hidden from view and free from moral restraints, nevertheless resembled the con- scious mind in many respects—both were capable of rational thought, planning, memory, and emotion.

in Freud’s conception, the unconscious mind was more broadly focused in its sexual desires than was the conscious mind. this was particularly true during early childhood, which he believed included autoerotic and homosexual phases as well as incestuous desires directed toward one or the other parent. Freud thought that the “normal” progression to adult hetero- sexuality could be derailed in various ways, often involving unconscious emotional processes such as a hostile, too-close, or jealous relationship with a parent or sibling. these phenom- ena could lead to what Freud called perversions, that is, men- tal states in which adult sexual desires were directed toward atypical targets, such as people of the same sex (homosexu- ality), inanimate objects (fetishism), and so on. or they could lead to neuroses, in which the sexual element was supposedly repressed from consciousness altogether and reemerged in the form of nonsexual traits and disorders, such as obsessive- compulsive behaviors, depression, or “hysteria.”

in Berlin, Magnus hirschfeld (Figure B) took a quite different view. hirschfeld proposed the existence of two neural centers in the brain that were responsible for sexual attraction to men and to women, respectively. he suggested that during early fetal life all humans possessed both centers, but later one center grew and dominated, while the other regressed. in men, of course, it was usually the center for attraction to women that persisted, while in women it was the center for attraction to men. only in the minority of homosexual individuals did development take the opposite course. hirschfeld believed that sex hormones (then understood in only a very rudimentary way) channeled develop- ment in one direction or another, and that people also had a genetic predisposition to same-sex or opposite-sex attraction.

in many ways, the views of Freud and hirschfeld represented opposite approaches to understanding the mind and sexual- ity. Freud tried to understand the mind in terms of processes that, though hidden, were inherently mental—unconscious thoughts. and he believed interpersonal relationships held the key to sexual orientation and other aspects of adult sexuality.

to Freud, getting to your adult sexuality was a long, sometimes chaotic drama in which the unconscious mind took the leading role. hirschfeld, on the other hand, tried to reduce the mind to relatively simple nonmental phenomena such as the growth and activity of nerve cells, hormone secretion, and information encoded in the genes. in hirschfeld’s view, these phenomena controlled sexual development in a manner that was largely independent of family relationships and other aspects of life experience. to hirschfeld, getting to your adult sexuality was a process that unfolded mechanistically without your active par- ticipation—it simply happened to you.

Freud’s theories came to dominate most people’s ideas about the mind and sexuality through the early and middle part of the 20th century, while hirschfeld’s theories languished in obscurity. toward the end of the century, however, a noticeable shift of views occurred. to some people, Freud’s theories began to seem capricious, poorly substantiated, or inspired by prejudice (against women especially). Meanwhile, scientific advances tended to bol- ster a biological view of sexuality. Studies in animals showed that prenatal hormone levels do indeed influence sexual behavior in adulthood, and family studies supported the idea that genes do have some influence on sexual orientation in humans.

probably the dominant view at present is that both approaches offer potential insights into human sexuality. there must be some biological underpinnings to our thoughts and behaviors, and exploring these underpinnings is likely to tell us a lot about why people differ from one another sexually. on the other hand, it seems likely that some aspects of human sexuality need to be studied at the level of thoughts—in other words, by a cognitive approach. thus, even if neither Freud’s nor hirschfeld’s theories turn out to be entirely correct, they may both have contributed useful styles of thinking to the discussion. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

perversion an obsolete term for atypical sexual desire or behavior, viewed as a mental disorder.

neuroses Mental disorders such as depression that, in Freudian theory, are strategies for coping with repressed sexual conflicts.

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Box 1.2 Controversies

(A) Sigmund Freud (B) Magnus Hirschfeld (1856–1939) (1868–1935)

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12 chapter 1

Sexuality Can Be Studied with a Wide Variety of Methods Investigators trained in many different disciplines make contributions to our under- standing of human sexuality. We could fill a whole book with an account of the meth- ods that are being used to study the topic. Here, we pick out some of the key areas and highlight certain research studies that illustrate the methods that are available.

Biomedical research focuses on the underlying mechanisms of sex Biomedical research is the approach that has the greatest practical impact on people’s sex lives. Here are a few examples:

zz Hormone-based contraception and abortion zz Drug treatments for reproductive cancers zz Drug treatments for erectile disorder, premature ejaculation, and low male

sex drive (with research into drug treatments for female sexual disorders being, so far, less successful) zz Methods to prevent, cure, or effectively treat sexually transmitted infec-

tions, including AIDS zz Technologies to treat infertility in women and men zz Improvements in the safety of pregnancy and childbirth

Biomedical researchers often turn to nonhuman animals to deepen their understand- ing of human nature, including human sexuality. Animal research involves studying the structure, function, and development of bodily systems that are involved in sex and reproduction. Most of the advances listed above were made possible by research using laboratory animals. In addition, researchers study the sexual behavior of ani- mals, both in the laboratory and in the wild. Although this book is titled Discover- ing Human Sexuality, we make no apology for including a great deal of information about, or derived from, nonhuman species.

Still, the introduction of modern imaging technologies has enabled the direct study in humans of topics that earlier could only be studied in animals. This is particularly true for brain function, which can now be studied with a variety of imaging tech- niques (Figure 1.5). In addition, the decipherment of the human genome is enabling all kinds of advances, such as the ability to ascertain the sex of a fetus and to diagnose certain fetal abnormalities on the basis of a simple blood sample drawn from the mother. And as we’ll discuss in Chapter 12, current research is attempting to home in on genes that influence such important traits as a person’s sexual orientation. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

One study that exemplifies the biomedical approach to sexuality was conducted by one of this textbook’s authors (Simon LeVay) about 25 years ago (LeVay, 1991). Basing his research on earlier work on laboratory animals, LeVay hypothesized that there might be structural differences between the brains of gay (homosexual) and straight (heterosexual) people. By examining the brains of deceased individuals, he found that a part of the brain involved in sexual behavior (a small region within a part of the brain known as the hypothalamus) was larger in straight men than in gay men. Other researchers extended this line of work to living people by the use of imaging techniques, and it’s now known that there are several differences in brain organization, not only between gay and straight men, but also between lesbian and straight women, as we’ll discuss in Chapter 12. Collectively, these studies helped shift our conception of homosexuality (and heterosexuality) from something that is learned or culturally imposed to something more akin to an inborn trait.

sexual orientation The direction of an individual’s sexual feelings: sexual attraction toward persons of the opposite sex (heterosexual), the same sex (homosexual), or both sexes (bisexual).

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 13

Psychology includes diverse approaches to sexuality Psychology, the study of mental processes and behavior, has splintered into numer- ous overlapping subdisciplines, each of which tends to use distinct methods. The branch of psychology most significant to the study of sexuality is social psychol- ogy—the study of how we think about, influence, and relate to other people. Social psychologists concern themselves with all kinds of sexual matters, such as sexual attraction and relationships, violence between intimate partners, and anti-gay prejudice.

Here’s one example of how social psychologists tackle an important question relat- ing to sexuality. Researchers at UCLA, led by Neil Malamuth, have been interested in the question of whether portrayals of sexual violence in the media and pornog- raphy make men more accepting of such violence, as has been asserted by many feminists. Out of a group of male college students, half were randomly assigned to watch movies that portrayed sexual violence against women—specifically, movies in which a woman was raped but subsequently fell in love with her rapist. The other students (the control group) watched movies that contained no sexual violence. A few days later the students were given a sexual attitudes questionnaire. The results supported the feminist contention: Male students who watched sexually violent mov- ies expressed significantly more accepting attitudes toward sexual violence than the men in the control group. This and other studies have convinced the UCLA research- ers that exposure to images of sexual violence really does predispose some men to commit sexual assaults against women (Malamuth et al., 2000; Hald et al., 2010). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

psychology The study of mental processes and behavior.

social psychology The study of one’s relationship to others.

feminism The movement to secure equality for women; the study of social and psychological issues from women’s perspectives.

control group A group of subjects included in a study for comparison purposes.

Figure 1.5 Sex on the brain This shows (in red) the average pattern of activity in the brains of ten women while they were experiencing orgasm, using a technique called functional mag- netic resonance imaging (fMRI). Activity immediately prior to orgasm has been digitally sub- tracted from the image, so the image shows activity related specifically to orgasm and not to general sexual arousal. Several parts of the brain are active during orgasm, but two areas of particular interest are the amygdala and hypothalamus, both of which play important roles in the regulation of sexual feelings and behaviors. (Image courtesy of Nan Wise and Barry Komis- aruk, Rutgers University.)

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Left hypothalamus

Right amygdala

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14 chapter 1

Cognitive psychology is the study of internal mental processes. As an example, there’s a well-known stereotype that gay men are “like women” and lesbians are “like men.” How true is this? To find out, cognitive psychologists have conducted many studies comparing a variety of mental traits, skills, and attitudes in gay and straight people. Researchers at the University of Haifa, in Israel, for instance, picked empathy, which is the ability to detect and feel the emotions of other people. This trait is typically better developed in women than in men. Consistent with the stereotype, the researchers found that gay men scored higher on tests of empathy than straight men, whereas lesbians scored lower than straight women (Perry et al., 2013). Still, looking at the entire body of research in this field, gay people show a patchwork of gender-typical and gender-atypical traits, and what’s true on average is not necessar- ily true about individuals (LeVay, 2011). We review this topic further in Chapter 12.

Evolutionary psychology seeks to explain how evolution has molded our genetic endowment to favor certain patterns of sexual feelings and behaviors. One idea in evolutionary psychology is that because reproduction is so much more demanding for females than for males, genes have evolved that cause females to be very picky in their choice of sex partners. As a result, other genes have evolved that cause males to engage in competitive and risky sexual displays—displays that are intended to influence females’ choices.

It’s well established that men are more likely than women to engage in risky behaviors, but it’s not clear whether the risks we take in everyday life—such as when we cross a busy street—are actually sexual displays. To help answer this question, an international group of evolutionary psychologists descended on Britain’s University of Liverpool (Pawlowski et al., 2008). They stationed themselves near the campus’s busiest crosswalk, and over a period of 3 months they observed how 1000 men and women crossed the street (Figure 1.6). Specifically, they noted how much risk the stu- dents took in crossing (i.e., whether they crossed when vehicles were approaching) and who else was present when each person crossed. As might have been expected, the researchers found that men took more risks than women. The interesting finding, though, was that the presence of women nearby significantly increased the likelihood that a man would attempt a risky crossing, whereas the presence of men nearby did not influence his decision one way or another. Women, on the other hand, paid little or no attention to who was present, regardless of their sex, when they decided whether to cross. The researchers concluded that even a mundane act such as crossing a street can be motivated in part by the urge to engage in sexual displays—but only for men in the presence of women. Women do engage in sexual dis- plays—when they flirt, for example—but these displays don’t commonly take the form of risk-taking behavior.

Another area of psychology is concerned with ethnic and cultural diversity in sexual attitudes, behavior, and relationships. This kind of research, which is conducted primarily by cultural anthropologists, involves field- work of the kind pioneered by Margaret Mead and oth- ers. An example is the research into the concept of parti- ble paternity in Amazonia that was discussed in Box 1.1. Another example closer to home concerns the Native American tradition of “two-spirit” people—individuals who incorporate both a male and a female identity and who are accorded a special role in their communities. These people have been studied in detail by anthropology

Figure 1.6 Looking for love? Crossing the street in front of traffic can be a form of sexual display, according to research at the University of Liverpool. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

cognitive psychology The study of the information-processing systems of the mind.

evolutionary psychology The study of the influence of evolution on mental processes or behavior.

cultural anthropology The study of cultural variations across the human race.

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 15

gist Walter Williams, who spent a great deal of time living among Native Americans (Williams, 1986). The study of two-spirit people challenges assumptions about gen- der that are prevalent in most Western societies (Sheppard & Mayo, 2013).

Sociologists focus on the connection between sex and society Sociology is the scientific study of society. Sociologists make a unique contribution to the study of human sexuality by linking the sexual behaviors and attitudes of indi- viduals to larger social structures. Sociologists examine how sexual expression varies with age, race, national origin, religious and political beliefs, place of residence, edu- cational level, and so on. Such studies are often carried out by means of sex surveys.

We already briefly mentioned the surveys conducted by Alfred Kinsey in the mid- 20th century. With the onset of the AIDS epidemic around 1980, the need for detailed information about sexual practices and attitudes spurred a host of new sex surveys. Most notable among the surveys was one conducted by sociologists at the University of Chicago and elsewhere—the National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) (Laumann et al., 1994). A comparable British survey—the National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NSSAL)—was published in the same year (Wellings et al., 1994) and has been repeated twice, most recently in 2013 (Mercer et al., 2013). Besides being more up-to-date than the Kinsey surveys, the NHSLS and NSSAL were technically superior in a number of respects, especially in their use of modern random-sampling methods and advanced techniques of statistical analysis, made possible by computers.

One interesting finding of the NHSLS concerned masturbation. This practice is often thought of as something a person does as a substitute for “real” sex when part- ners are unavailable. No doubt this is sometimes the case, but the survey findings indicate that people usually masturbate in addition to engaging in partnered sex, not as a substitute for it. In fact, women with partners masturbate more than women without them, according to the survey.

In 2010, researchers at the Center for Sexual Health Promotion at Indiana Univer- sity published findings from a new National Survey of Sexual Health and Behav- ior (NSSHB) (Reece et al., 2010b). This survey obtained responses from nearly 6000 Americans age 14 to 94. Among the findings was a gender gap in the experience of heterosexual sex: More men than women experienced orgasm during their most recent act of penile-vaginal intercourse, whereas more women than men experienced pain.

Another valuable source of information is the General Social Survey (GSS), which is run by sociologists at the University of Chicago. The GSS has been asking Americans pretty much the same questions at 1- or 2-year intervals since 1972. Using the GSS survey data it is possible to find out how people’s attitudes toward, say, sex between unmarried couples, has changed over time. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

From time to time throughout this book, we cite findings from these and other surveys. We also occasionally refer to magazine-sponsored surveys, which tend to cover intimate topics that the official surveys ignore. In 2012, for example, Esquire magazine commissioned a national random-sample survey that came up with all kinds of interesting information about current U.S. sex practices—such as that het- erosexual men’s favorite sexual position is the “cowgirl” (the woman straddling the man and facing forward) (Esquire, 2012).

Sex surveys are plagued with a variety of problems. It is often difficult to obtain truly representative samples of respondents. In addition, respondents may be reluctant to divulge details of their sex lives, especially if the information could be regarded as shameful. Kinsey tried to overcome this problem by the use of leading questions (“When did you first . . . ?” rather than “Have you ever . . . ?”). In more recent surveys researchers have attempted to reduce the embarrassment factor by

gender The collection of psychological traits that differ between males and females.

sociology The scientific study of society.

National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS) A national survey of sexual behavior, relationships, and attitudes in the United States, conducted in the early 1990s.

National Survey of Sexual Attitudes and Lifestyles (NSSAL) A periodic British survey of sexual behavior, relationships, and attitudes, most recently conducted in 2013.

National Survey of Sexual Health and Behavior (NSSHB) A national survey of sexual behavior in the United States, based at Indiana University and published in 2010.

General Social Survey (GSS) A long-running periodic survey of the U.S. population run by the National Opinion Research Center.

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16 chapter 1

allowing interviewees to type their responses directly into a computer.

Random-sample surveys, even very large ones, are likely to encompass very few if any individuals who belong to “minorities within minorities,” such as Asian-American lesbians. Yet it is often these neglected groups about whom information is most needed. What’s more, when only a small percentage of the subjects belong to a certain group, their truthful responses may be swamped by frivolous responses from others. This apparently happened with a survey of U.S. adolescents called the National Longitudinal Study of Ado- lescent Health, or AddHealth: In this survey an improbably large number of students described themselves as gay, and they sometimes added other unlikely facts such as having artificial limbs or numerous children. The deception came to light in a repeat survey carried out on the same individuals when they were adults: By then the artificial limbs, the chil- dren, and the homosexuality had largely vanished (Savin- Williams & Joyner, 2013).

Sociologists are also interested in the mechanisms by which social structures (rang- ing from the family to the mass media) mold individual feelings and behaviors. One influential idea is that society gives us “scripts”—ways of presenting ourselves to others as we deal with social interactions. We can select from many different scripts and ad-lib on them too. This idea has been referred to as script theory (Reiss, 1986; Simon & Gagnon, 1986; Frith, 2009). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Here’s an example of the application of script theory to a sexual topic: Angela Bartoli and Diane Clark of Shippensburg University studied the dating scripts typi- cally used by college students. They found that men’s scripts were far more likely to involve an expectation of sex, whereas women’s scripts typically included a respon- sibility for setting limits on sexual interactions (Bartoli & Clark, 2006). This is, of course, consistent with traditional views about men’s and women’s roles in sexual negotiations. Bartoli and Clark’s finding suggest that several decades of “women’s lib” did not change this dynamic in any significant way.

Sociologists may also engage in ethnographic fieldwork, immersing themselves in their subjects’ lives in the same way that cultural anthropologists do. For exam- ple, Staci Newmahr, then a graduate student in sociology at the State University of New York (SUNY) at Buffalo, wanted to explore the lives and motivations of people who engaged in BDSM activities (Newmahr, 2011). (“BDSM” means the infliction or receipt of pain, humiliation, and the like as a sexual or recreational outlet.) To do so, Newmahr joined a BDSM club and submitted to treatments that you might consider extreme, or at least well beyond the usual requirements for a PhD. We report on some of her findings in Chapter 13.

The economic approach weighs costs and benefits How much is sex “worth?” Sometimes, as in the case of prostitution, the answer to this question can be expressed in dollar terms. But even when money doesn’t change hands, people calculate—consciously or unconsciously—the costs and benefits of sexual encounters and sexual relationships (Baumeister & Vohs, 2004). The cost may be counted not in money but in time lost from studies or career, or in the effect of a damaged reputation that lowers a person’s future value in the sexual marketplace. The benefit may not be sexual pleasure, but a secure relationship. Researchers will- ing to take a hard-nosed economic approach to these issues help us understand how much more there is to human sexuality than simple romance or “the joy of sex.”

script theory The analysis of sexual and other behaviors as the enactment of socially instilled roles.

ethnography The study of a cultural group, often by means of extended individual fieldwork.

Participants in sex surveys give more honest responses when they can do so without the presence of investigators.

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 17

As an example of this approach, let’s take a look at a study that focused on how the sex ratio (the ratio of males to females in a given population) influences sexual negotiations. A basic tenet of economic theory is that the value of scarce resources tends to rise, so if one sex is in a minority, mem- bers of that sex gain leverage in the heterosexual marketplace. Because males are typically more interested in uncommitted sex than are women, it might be expected that casual sex would be more common in popula- tions with an excess of females and less common where males are in the majority. Psychologist Nigel Barber tested this prediction by obtaining data on sex ratios and teen birthrates (a proxy indicator of uncommitted sex) in 185 countries (Barber, 2000). Sure enough, teen births were highest in countries with an excess of females, and the association was not a weak one: Nearly 40% of the variability in teen birthrates between countries could be explained by their sex ratios. In later chapters we’ll see how sex ratios impact the sex lives of Americans. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

It’s worth emphasizing that individual researchers often cross the boundaries between the various disciplines just described, or collaborate with researchers from other backgrounds. Psychologists and neurosci- entists often work together, for example. This kind of boundary cross- ing has greatly enhanced researchers’ ability to understand the roots of sexual behavior and sexual diversity.

As we have seen, women and men in a variety of academic disciplines and walks of life have made important contributions to our understand- ing of human sexuality. Increasingly, however, there is a perception that sex research, or sexology, is an academic discipline in its own right. This discipline is an unusual one in that it demands training that crosses most of the traditionally established intellectual boundaries.

Paper Human Sexuality homework help

A variety of factors make sex research especially challenging:

zz It can be difficult to obtain appropriate subjects to study. It’s easy enough to corral a classful of human sexuality students, but how representative are these of the general citizenry, let alone humanity as a whole? zz It can be difficult to phrase survey questions in ways that encourage honest responses and that don’t bias responses to conform to researchers’ preconceptions. zz It can be difficult to extrapolate from animal research to human subjects. zz It can be difficult to obtain funding for research: Conservative politicians

have taken to vetting grant applications, looking for proposals that they can ridicule or defund. On the other hand, the epidemics of AIDS, herpes, and other sexually transmitted infections have led to the investment of a great deal of public and private funds into sex-related research topics.

Numerous organizations at local, international, and global levels now foster sex research. In the United States, the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS, or “Quad-S”) publishes the Journal of Sex Research and other periodicals. The Ameri- can Association of Sexuality Educators Counselors and Therapists (AASECT) and the Society for Sex Therapy and Research (SSTAR) certify educational programs in sex education and therapy. There are also institutes devoted to research or training in issues of sexuality, such as the Kinsey Institute (which is affiliated with Indiana Uni- versity), and special-purpose organizations such as the Guttmacher Institute (which focuses on family planning issues). (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

At an international level, two organizations stand out. The International Academy of Sex Research publishes the Archives of Sexual Behavior. The World Association for Sexual Health, which represents sex-research and sexual-health organizations from

Prostitution is not the only sphere in which people calculate the value of sex and sexual relationships.

sexology The scientific study of sex and sexual disorders.

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18 chapter 1

53 countries, issued a universal Declaration of Sexual Rights in 1997, and it has been updated since that time. The 2014 declaration (in abridged form) is as follows:

zz The right to equality and non-discrimination zz The right to life, liberty, and security of the person zz The right to autonomy and bodily integrity zz The right to be free from torture and cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment or

punishment zz The right to be free from all forms of violence and coercion zz The right to privacy zz The right to the highest attainable standard of health, including sexual health; with the possibility of pleasurable, satisfying, and safe sexual experiences zz The right to enjoy the benefits of scientific progress and its application zz The right to information zz The right to education and the right to comprehensive sexuality education zz The right to enter, form, and dissolve marriage and other similar types of relationships based on equality and full and free consent zz The right to decide whether to have children, the number and spacing of children, and to have the information and the means to do so zz The right to the freedom of thought, opinion, and expression zz The right to freedom of association and peaceful assembly zz The right to participation in public and political life zz The right to access to justice, remedies, and redress

Summary zz Sexuality has changed over time, under the influence of evolution and culture. Certain modes of sexual behav- ior, such as competition for sex partners, were inherited from our nonhuman ancestors. The increasing conscious understanding of the connection between sex and repro- duction led to the development of efforts to interrupt the connection—by contraception and abortion. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

zz The establishment of large-scale societies and govern- ments led to the regulation of sexuality. Marriage in particular has undergone many changes, from a contract arranged by men to a more voluntary and egalitarian arrangement that benefits both partners. The banning of polygamy by the early Christian church laid the ground- work for greater equality in marriage. Organized religion has often established moral codes that restrict sexual expression, especially nonreproductive behaviors such as sex between same-sex partners.

zz The steep reduction in the birthrate in many countries over the last two centuries has also allowed women to take a role in marriage that goes beyond incessant pregnancy and child rearing. Marriage itself has lost some of its significance in Western societies as nonmarital cohabitation and child rearing, and at-will divorce, have become increasingly common and accepted.

zz Sexuality can be studied with a wide variety of approaches. The biomedical approach has been based primarily on studies in nonhuman animals, but recent advances, such as brain-scanning technology and the decoding of the human genome, allow for more direct study of sexual processes in humans.

zz The psychological approach falls into several subdisci- plines. Social psychology concerns itself with the diverse ways in which sex influences interpersonal relations. Cognitive psychology is focused on the mental processes, such as sexual arousal, that underlie sexual expression. Evolutionary psychology is devoted to understanding how evolutionary forces have molded our sex lives. Cul- tural anthropology investigates the influence of ethnic and cultural diversity on sexual expression.

zz Sociologists are concerned with the interactions between the sexuality of individuals and larger demographic groupings. Sex surveys are an important tool in this approach. An example of a theoretical social-science approach is sexual script theory: the notion that, as a

Go to the Discovering

Human Sexuality Companion Website at sites.sinauer.com/

discoveringhumansexuality3e for activities, study questions, quizzes, and other study aids.

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Sexuality: pathwayS to underStanding 19

Discussion Questions 1. Do you think that the sexual behavior of nonhuman

animals has anything to teach us about what is morally acceptable in human sexual behavior?

2. How much does marriage or the prospect of marriage matter to you? Do you think men and women differ in how they view marriage? (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

3. What course of education would you recommend to someone who plans a career in sex research?

4. To what extent do you think that your religious upbring- ing and beliefs—or the lack of them—affect your cur- rent or future sexual and marital choices? If you’re not comfortable with this question, discuss how you believe college students should interpret the teachings of their religious leaders when making sexual decisions.

5. After reading the basics of the World Association for Sexual Health’s Declaration of Sexual Rights, do you agree with everything in it? Do you think the declara- tion fails to address any important topics? How would the principles laid out in the declaration bear on topics where there are marked differences between cultures, such as polygamy, female circumcision, prostitution, and homosexuality?

6. According to its mission statement, the Sexuality In- formation and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS) “advocates the right of individuals to make responsible sexual choices.” Should people also have the right to make irresponsible sexual choices? Where would you draw the line and on what grounds?

Web Resources American Association of Sex Educators Counselors and

Therapists (AASECT) www.aasect.org Archive for Sexology—English-language site at the

University of Berlin www2.hu-berlin.de/sexology Guttmacher Institute www.guttmacher.org International Academy of Sex Research (IASR)

www.iasr.org Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and

Reproduction www.kinseyinstitute.org

Sex Information and Education Council of Canada (SIECCAN) www.sieccan.org

Sexuality Information and Education Council of the United States (SIECUS) www.siecus.org

Society for Sex Therapy and Research (SSTAR) www.sstarnet.org

Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality (SSSS) www.sexscience.org

Statistics Canada www.statcan.gc.ca World Association for Sexual Health (WAS)

www.worldsexology.org

Recommended Reading Ellis, H. (1900). Studies in the psychology of sex. Davis.

Freud, S. (1905/1975). Three essays on the theory of sexuality. Basic.

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B. & Martin, C. E. (1948). Sexual behavior in the human male. Saunders.

Kinsey, A. C., Pomeroy, W. B., Martin, C. E. & Gebhard, P. H. (1953). Sexual behavior in the human female. Saunders.

Krafft-Ebing, R. v. (1886/1999). Psychopathia sexualis, with special reference to contrary sexual instinct: A clinical-forensic study. Bloat.

Masters, W. H. & Johnson, V. E. (1966). Human sexual response. Little, Brown.

Masters, W. H. & Johnson, V. E. (1970). Human sexual inadequacy. Little, Brown.

Mead, M. (1928). Coming of age in Samoa: A psychological study of primitive youth for Western civilization. Morrow.

(The books listed above are historically important works but don’t necessarily represent current thinking.)

Dabhoiwala, F. (2012). The origins of sex: A history of the first sexual revolution. Oxford University Press.

Michael, R. T., Gagnon, J. H., Laumann, E. O. & Kolata, G. (1994). Sex in America: A definitive survey. Little, Brown.

Roach, M. (2008). Bonk: The curious coupling of science and sex. Norton.

Tolman, D.L. & Diamond, L.M. (Eds.) (2013). APA handbook of sexuality and psychology, Vols. 1 and 2. American Psychological Association.

result of constant interaction with others, people learn to play certain sexual roles. Sociologists also do ethno- graphic fieldwork in the environments where sexual transactions take place.

zz The economic approach to sexuality asks how the per- ceived costs and benefits of interactions within a sexual marketplace influence people’s sexual decision making.

zz Sexology, or sex research, is gradually asserting itself as an independent and multidisciplinary field of study. National and international organizations, conferences, and journals are devoted to the subject. The World Asso- ciation for Sexual Health has issued a universal Declara- tion of Sexual Rights.

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2Chapter

Diversity in women’s vulvas. These life casts are among 400 that constitute The Great Wall of Vagina, by British artist Jamie McCartney.

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Women’s Bodies

Women and men are different, both in their bodies—the subject of this and the following chapters—and in their minds. Indeed, bodily differences, especially in the external genitals, are commonly used to decide whether a person is male or female. Yet many similarities and parallels exist between the bodies and minds of men and women—they are only variations on a common theme, after all. And there is considerable anatomical diversity within the categories of male and female. In fact, some babies are born with bodies that are not easy to categorize as either male or female, as we’ll discuss in Chapter 4.

By presenting women’s bodies first, we intentionally distance ourselves from the traditional perspective, which discussed women’s sex organs in terms of their equivalence to, or difference from, the sex organs of men. Neither men nor women are the “original” sex from which the other was molded: Women and men coevolved over millions of years from females and males of our ancestral species.

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22 chapter 2

A Woman’s Vulva Includes Her Mons, Labia, Vaginal Opening, and Clitoris Many girls and women have little understanding of their sexual anatomy, in part because the female external genitalia are not as prominent as those of men. In addi- tion, girls often learn that it’s not “nice” to inquire or talk about these body parts, or even to take a close look at them. Vague phrases such as “down there” may substi- tute for specific terms. Plenty of adult women—and men—do not know what the word “vagina” means and could not make a reasonable sketch of a woman’s genital anatomy. Thus, the “naming of parts” and the description of their layout is the crucial first stage of education in sexuality (Figure 2.1).

The word vulva is a scientific term that refers to the entire external genital area in a woman. The appearance of the vulva varies from woman to woman, a fact illustrated clearly in Figure 2.1B and in the body casts of 40 women pictured at the beginning of this chapter. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

The mons is a pad of fatty tissue covered by skin and pubic hair. It lies immedi- ately in front of the pubic bone. The mons is erotically sensitive, and it may serve as a cushion for the woman’s pubic area during sex. The hair helps vaporize odors that arise in specialized sweat glands, similar to those in the armpits, and these odors may act as pheromones (chemical attractants). The mons with its pubic hair may also be a visual trigger for sexual arousal in a woman’s partner, since it is the most easily visible portion of the vulva. external genitalia The sexual structures on the outside of the body. vulva The female external genitalia. mons (or mons veneris) The frontmost component of the vulva: a mound of fatty tissue covering the pubic bone. pubic hair Hair that appears on portions of the external genitalia in both sexes at puberty.

Mons

(A)

(B)

LeVay DHS 3E Figure 02.01 09/25/14

Clitoral hood Outer labia

Inner labia

Urethral opening

Vaginal opening

Clitoris

Vestibule

Perineum

Anus

Figure 2.1 The vulva, or female external genitalia. (A) Vulva with labia drawn apart to show the vestibule, urethral opening, and vaginal opening. The perineum and anus are not part of the vulva. (B) The inner labia are quite variable in shape and color from woman to woman. (See Web Activity 2.1: The Vulva.)

02_DHS3E_CH02.indd 22 1/20/15 10:41 AM (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

 

 

women’s bodies 23

In spite of these possible functions for pubic hair, many women remove some or all of the hair by shaving, waxing, or other methods (Figure 2.2). Artistically expressive women may “vajazzle” the shaven area with sequins or crystals. Pubic hair removal is much more common among young women than among older women, according to a 2010 study by researchers at the Indiana University (Figure 2.3). However, the New York Times reports that some women are going back to the natural look, led by Hol- lywood actresses who either announced that they gave up hair removal or showed off their pubic hair in nude scenes (Meltzer, 2014). Many cultures (such as that of Japan) have viewed abundant pubic hair as highly erotic.

The labia (Latin for “lips”) are two pairs of skin folds that extend down from the mons on either side of the vulva. The outer labia, or labia majora, are padded with fatty tissue and are hairy on the surfaces nearest to the thighs. The skin of the outer labia is often darker than the skin elsewhere, and it is erotically sensitive, especially on the inner, hairless sides of the labia.

The inner labia, or labia minora, are two thin folds of hairless skin that lie between the two outer labia. In some women the inner labia are only visible after parting the outer labia; in other women they protrude to variable degrees (see Figure 2.1B). The inner labia meet at the back of the vulva, and also at the front, where they form the clitoral hood. The left and right inner labia generally touch each other in the mid- line when the woman is not aroused, and the area encircled by the labia is called the vestibule. labia Two pairs of skin folds that form the sides of the vulva. outer labia (or labia majora) Fleshy skin folds, partially covered in pubic hair, that extend from the mons. inner labia (or labia minora) Thin, hairless folds of skin located between the outer labia and immediately flanking the vestibule. clitoral hood A loose fold of skin that covers the clitoris. vestibule The potential space be- tween the left and right inner labia. (Paper Human Sexuality homework help)

Figure 02.02 DHS 3E LeVay Baldwin Sinauer Associates 09.25.14

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 2.2 Pubic hair—love it or loathe it? (A) Gustave Courbet’s 1866 painting The Ori- gin of the World put natural pubic hair front and center. (B) A Brazilian wax removes all pubic hair except a narrow strip. (C) Complete removal of pubic hair.

DHS3E_0203.eps DHS 3E LeVay Baldwin Sinauer Associates 09.25.14

Total removal Partial removal No removal

(A) (B)

Women age 18–24

Women age 40–49

58.5%

12.4%

29.1%

49.7%

27.8% 22.5%

Figure 2.3 Removal of pubic hair These charts compare hair removal practices in (A) young and (B) middle-aged women, based on a nonrandom survey of 2451 sexually active women. “Total removal” means that women were completely hairless at least once in the prior month. (After Herbenick et al., 2010d.)

02_DHS3E_CH02.indd 23 1/20/15 10:41 AM

 
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My Vision As A Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Assignment Help

/in , /by

My Vision As A Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Assignment Help

****USE THE ATTACHED TEMPLATE AND SCHOLAR PAGE ATTACHMENT INFORMATION TO CONTINUE WRITING THE ASSIGNMENT***

This assignment asks you to now put your ideas together in your vision as a practitioner-scholar:

  • Your purpose in psychology.
  • Your meaningful goals.

The assignment also provides the opportunity to receive feedback from your instructor to help you further clarify your vision of your future in the field of psychology. Complete the following:

  • Review the answers you provided in the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Worksheet, if you had chosen to complete the optional worksheet.
  • Review your formatted assignment in the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Template one last time to complete any last refinements.
  • Review the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Scoring Guide one last time to make sure you meet all the requirements for your assignment.

As you write this assignment, consider the following:

  • Purpose: The purpose of your vision is to create an inspirational and realistic description for how you want to contribute to your specialized field of psychology based on your passions and interests.
  • Primary Audience: Because this is a personal vision statement for your future career, you are your primary audience. Envision yourself in a time where you are frustrated and want to throw in the towel. What would help you remember your purpose and inspire you to continue moving forward towards your vision?
  • Secondary Audience: Your vision should also be clear to other people (such as family, friends, and your instructor) so you can share it with them and receive support in achieving it.
  • References: Reference any supporting documents you used to create your vision.
  • Assignment Requirements: Be sure to comply with the requirements stated below.

Your writing in this assignment should not just be a collection of notes, lists, or questions and answers. Instead, it should be a well-organized discussion that flows logically from one idea to the next.

Instructions

Complete the following in your assignment template:

  • Role as a Practitioner-Scholar: Draw from your previous study of the practitioner-scholar model to answer the following:
    • In your own words, explain McClintock’s scholar-practitioner model.
    • Reference Capella’s Learning Model Quick Reference and Examples to compare the differences between the levels of practitioner-scholar and scholar-practitioner.
    • What will it mean to you to be a practitioner-scholar? Explain how the practitioner-scholar model can help guide you in developing the knowledge and skills that you will need to reach your professional vision and goals.
    • Be sure to cite your sources.
  • Vision: In response to feedback you have received and the evolution of your ideas since you began, and in light of what you have learned about the practitioner-scholar model, revise and refine the vision statement that you developed in the previous two units so it is as personally meaningful as possible. This statement should articulate how your passions and interests connect to a specialization in psychology. Note: It may be useful to update your Articulating Your Purpose activity to help support these revisions.
  • Goals: Review the long-term educational, career, and life goals that you identified as relevant to achieving your vision. In response to feedback you have received and the evolution of your ideas since your earlier drafts, revise, expand, refine, and consolidate your goals as needed.
    • Identify significant milestones for each goal. Be sure that your goals and milestones are:
      • Specific.
      • Measurable.
      • Achievable.
      • Relevant.
      • Time-bound.
    • Discuss the reasons for each goal and milestone.

After completing a draft of the previously outlined sections of your paper, draft these sections in the assignment template:

  • Title page in APA format.
  • Abstract: A concise summary of every main point in the paper.
  • Introduction: A concise overview of the paper’s content.
  • Conclusion: A concise summary of important points of the paper, explaining the benefits of achieving your future career vision and becoming a practitioner scholar in the field of psychology and the importance and relevance of your vision and goals to your personal and professional aspirations.
  • References in APA format.

For more information, see the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Template in the resources.

Example assignment: You may use the assignment example, linked in the Resources, to give you an idea of what a Proficient or higher rating on the scoring guide would look like.

Additional Requirements

Your assignment should also meet the following requirements:

  • Template: Use the Your Vision as a Psychology Practitioner-Scholar Template to format your assignment.
  • Length: 3–4 typed and double-spaced content pages in Times New Roman 12-point font. The title page, abstract, and reference list are not included in this length.
  • References: Include a minimum of three references from scholarly literature. All references need to be cited in-text, according to current APA standards. Remember that citations are to support your thoughts, not take the place of them!
  • Written communication: Must be clear, with correct spelling, grammar, and syntax and with good organization.
  • Writing style: APA expectations for scholarly writing include the use of third-person narrative, unless it is awkward to do so. However, because you are talking about yourself in this paper, you may write in the first person.
  • APA formatting: Must be formatted according to APA style and formatting and include a title page, abstract, and reference list. Note that these three elements are not counted toward the length of your assignment.
 
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